National ParkService Select Historical Seports Nátional Park Service: Family Tree of the National Park System Page 1 of 2 History Links to the Past I Search A Contact The National Park Service MENU Family Tree of the National Park System Contents A Chart with Accompanying Text Designed to Foreword Illustrate the Growth of the National Park System 1872- 1972 Introduction Ronald F. Lee Part I 1972 Part II Part III Part IV Part V Part VI Part VII Acknowledgements Abbreviations National Park System Family Tree Eastern National Park & Monument Association Philadelphia, Pa. http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/lee2/index.htmg 12/17/2002 Nátional Park Service: Family Tree of the National Park System (Contents) Page 1 of 3 - State Family Tree of the National Park System Table of Contents family tree al as - para #years contents NPS Family Tree Foreword MENU Dedication Contents Introduction Foreword part I Introduction Beginnings The National Park Line, 1872-1916 Part I National Monument Line I, 1906-1916, Department of the Interior Mineral Springs Line, 1832-1916 Part II part II Part III Establishment and Growth of the National Park System. 1916-1933 Part IV part III Part V Reorganization of 1933 Part VI National Capital Parks Line, 1790-1933 National Memorials Line, 1776-1933 Part VII National Military Parks Line, 1781-1933 National Cemetery Line, 1867-1933 Acknowledgements National Monument Line II, 1910-1933, War Department National Monument Line III, 1907-1933, Department of Agriculture National Park Abbreviations Systein Areas by Category Following the Reorganization of 1933 part IV Growth of the National Park System. 1933-1964 Natural Areas. 1933-1964 Historical Areas. 1933-1964 Recreation Areas, 1933-1964 part V Reorganization of 1964 part VI Growth of the National Park System, 1964-1972 http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/lee2/leec.htm 12/17/2002 National Park Service: Family Tree of the National Park System (Contents) Page 2 of 3 Natural Areas, 1964-1972 Historical Areas, 1964-1972 Recreation Areas, 1964-1972 National Capital Parks and Urban Parks, 1964-1972 Cultural Areas. 1966-1972 part VII The First Century Abbreviations Acknowledgements Index (omitted from on-line edition) Family Tree Chart (~265 kb) dedication To my wife Jean P. Lee abbreviations N.B.S. National Battlefield Site N.C. National Cemetery N.C.P. National Capital Parks N.H.L. National Historic Landmark N.H.P. National Historical Park N.H.S. National Historic Site N.L. National Lakeshore N.M. National Monument N.Mem. National Memorial N.Mem.P. National Memorial Park N.M.P. National Military Park N.P. National Park N. Pkwy. National Parkway N.R.A. National Recreation Area N.S. National Seashore N.Scien.Res. National Scientific Reserve N.S.R. National Scenic Riverway N.S.T. National Scenic Trail http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/lee2/leec.htm 12/17/2002 anpa 7, F.3 copy 719.32 Received I UNITED STATES DEC e 6 1946 C.2 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOLUE National of Liberty J. A. KRUG, Secretary Monument NATIONAL PARK SERVICE NEWTON B. DRURY, Director THE EVOLUTION OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES A Thesis Presented for the Degree of Master of Arts Obio State University on June 1921 By Paul Herman Buck OF (Reprinted for Official Use Only) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1946 5278 U. S. Department of the Interior NATIONAL PARK SERVICE GENERAL PLAN OF ADMINISTRATION FOR THE EDUCATIONAL DIVISION GILL Approved June 4, 1929 (Signed) Horace M. Albright Horace M. Albright Director Hall t yose Prepared at was W ASE Educational Headquarters National Park Service Bryant 353.35 Un Arc.,1. (336) I- PURPOSE OF THIS GENERAL PLAN The purpose of this General Plan of Administration for the Educational Division of the National Park Service is to codify principles of organization and operation and to state, as briefly as possible, the administrative plan to be followed in the opera- tion of the various units of the Educational Division. The plan is based upon actual organization and operation in the field, as exemplified by the most thoroughly developed park units, and has been recorded in order to form a basis for con- tinuance of administration of these units and for the efficient organization and operation of new units. Having been thoroughly studied and approved by the Director, the procedure as outlined will hereafter be followed in the field; any necessary changes will be submitted to. the Director for approval, through the Head- quarters of the Educational Division. Sufficient latitude has been allowed for individual park educational officers to exercise their own personal initiative in carrying out individual park programs. The present general plan is supplemented by an individual "Plan of Administration of the Educational Activities" for each park. The latter plans are prepared by the Park Naturalist and Chief Naturalist working in cooperation. After being concurred by the Superintendent, they are submitted by the Chief Naturalist to the Director for approval, after which they will be carried out in the field as are the technical plans of other Park Service divisions. Horace M. Albright Director, National Park Service No: 536 LIBRARY OF GLAGIER NATIONAL PARK BELTON. MONTANA Date Rec'd. The National Parks: Shaping the System (Introduction) Page 1 of 2 The National Parks: SHAPING THE SYSTEM Introduction Big Birt A Few Words About this Book Barry Mackintosh Bureau Historian, National Park Service Shaping the System When did the National Park System begin? The usual response is 1872, when an act of Congress created Yellowstone National Park, MENU the first place so titled. Like a river formed from several branches, however, the system cannot be traced to a single source. Other components-the parks of the nation's capital, Hot Springs, parts of Contents Yosemite-preceded Yellowstone as parklands reserved or established by the federal government. And there was no real "system" of national parks until Congress created a federal bureau, the National Park Introduction Service, in 1916 to manage those areas assigned to the U.S. Department of the Interior. Shaping the System The systematic park administration within Interior paved the way for annexation of Appendix comparable areas from other federal agencies. In a 1933 government reorganization, the National Park Service acquired the War Department's national military parks and monuments, the Agriculture Department's national monuments, and the national capital parks. Thereafter the NPS would be the primary federal agency preserving and providing for public enjoyment of America's most significant natural and cultural properties in a fully comprehensive National Park System. Ronald F. Lee's Family Tree of the National Park System, published by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in 1972, chronicled the system's evolution to that date. Its usefulness led the NPS to issue a revised and expanded account titled The National Parks: Shaping the System in 1985. This is the third edition of that publication, reflecting the system's continued growth and diversity. The nomenclature of National Park System areas is often confusing. System units now bear some 20 titles besides "national park," which commonly identifies the largest, most spectacular natural areas. Other designations like national seashore, national lakeshore, national river, and national scenic trail are usefully descriptive. In contrast, the national monument title-applied impartially to large natural areas like Dinosaur and small cultural sites like the Statue of Liberty-says little about a place. For no obvious reason, some historic forts are national monuments and others are national historic sites, while historic battlefields are variously titled national military parks, national battlefields, and national battlefield parks, among other things. All these designations are rooted in the system's legislative and administrative history. Where distinctions in title denote no real differences in character or management policy, the differing designations usually reflect changes in fashion over time. Historical areas that once would have been named national monuments, for example, more recently have been titled national historic sites, if small, or national historical parks, if larger. Regardless of their titles, all system units are referred to generically as parks, a practice followed in this book. The dates used here for parks are usually those of the earliest laws, presidential proclamations, or departmental orders authorizing or establishing them. In some cases these actions occurred before the areas were placed under NPS administration and thus in the National Park System. In http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh1/sts1.htm 7/12/2002 The National Parks: Shaping the System (Introduction) Page 2 of 2 1970 Congress defined the system as including "any area of land and water now or hereafter administered by the Secretary of the Interior, through the National Park Service, for park, monument, historic, parkway, recreational, or other purposes." This legal definition excludes a number of national historic sites, memorials, trails, and other areas assisted or coordinated but not administered by the NPS. Lee's Family Tree, with its chronological listing of park additions and concise discussion of significant examples, developments, and trends, was a valuable orientation and reference tool for NPS personnel and others tracking the system's growth to Yellowstone's centennial year. It is hoped that this revised edition of Shaping the System, still owing much to Lee's work, will serve the same purposes for the present generation of park employees and friends. Top History I Links to the Past I National Park Service I Search I Contact Last Modified: Fri, Jul 27 2001 08:26:28 am EDT http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh1/sts1.htm ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh1/sts1.htm 7/12/2002 n The National Parks: Shaping the System (Table of Contents) Page 1 of 2 The National Parks: SHAPING THE SYSTEM Table of Contents Part 1 Introduction Shaping the System A Few Words About This Book MENU Contents Part 2 Shaping the System Introduction Before the National Park Service Forging a System, 1916 to 1933 Shaping the System The Reorganization of 1933 From the New Deal to War and Peace, 1933 to 1951 Mission 66 and the Environmental Era, 1952 to 1972 Appendix Rounding Out the System, 1973 to 1999 Ideals Into Reality Part 3 Appendix Park Origins Chronological Summary Maps (omitted from on-line edition) The National Park System Growth of the National Park System National Park Service Directors Changes to the System Since 1991 Suggested Readings Index (omitted from on-line edition) Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mackintosh, Barry. The national parks. Includes index. Supt. of Docs. no.: 129.2:P23/3 1. United States. National Park Service-History. 2. National parks and reserves-United States-History. I. United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications. II. Title. SB482.A4M24 1984 353.008'632'09 84-600068 Revision History: 1st Edition: 1985 2nd Edition: 1991 3rd in 2000 http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh1/stst.htm 7/12/2002 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 1 of 5 Organizational Structure of the National Park Service Administrative History - 1917 to 1985 - the Administrative History Key Staff Officials by Dire Organizational Structures of the NPS 1917 to 1985 Nat DIRECTORS' TENURE NAME MENU 05-16-1917 to 01-08-1929 Stephen T. Mather Director Preface Horace M. Albright Assistant Director Arno B. Cammerer Assistant/Associate Dire Organizational Arthur E. Demaray Assistant to Director Structure Horace M. Albright Assistant Director (Field George A. Moskey Assistant to Director, Us Epilogue Washington B. Lewis Assistant to Director, La 01-12-1929 to 08-09-1933 Horace M. Albright Director Arno B. Cammerer Associate Director Organizational Charts Arthur E. Demaray Assistant Director, Oper: George A. Moskey Assistant Director, Use, Washington B. Lewis Assistant Director, Land Harold C. Bryant Assistant Director, Resea Naturalists, Conrad L. Wirth Assistant Director, Land Rangers, & Historians 08-10-1933 to 08-09-1940 Arno B. Cammerer Director Arthur E. Demaray Associate Director Senior George A. Moskey Assistant Director, Land Administration Harold C. Bryant Assistant Director, Resea Officers Conrad L. Wirth Assistant Director, Recre Hillory A. Tolson Assistant Director, Oper: Directors Charles A. Peters Assistant Director, Build Verne E. Chatelain Assistant Director, Histo Key Staff Officials Branch Spalding Assistant Director, Histo Ronald F. Lee Assistant Director, Histo George A. Moskey Office of Chief Counsel Number "Two" 08-20-1940 to 03-31-1951 Newton B. Drury Director Senior Operations Officers Arthur E. Demaray Associate Director George A. Moskey Office of Chief Counsel Hillory A. Tolson Assistant Director is Jackson E. Price Office of Chief Counsel Rilli S. Herbert Evison Office of Information Hi Conrad L. Wirth Assistant Director 04-01-1951 to 12-08-1951 Arthur E. Demaray Director Wirth Associate http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-e.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 1 of 3 Organizational Structure of the National Park Administrative Service the - 1917 to 1985 - Administrative History Organizational Structure Organizational Structures of the NPS 1917 to 1985 MENU Introduction Preface There have been many Organizational books, Structure pamphlets, and articles Epilogue written about the National Organizational Charts Park Service over the Horace Albright, Conrad Wirth, and George Hartzog at the Grand Canyon years. All Naturalists, Rangers, & in the 1960's discussing improvement through training at the dedication of of them Historians the Horace M. Albright Training Center. have dealt Senior Administration with the policies, practices, philosophies, and to some extent, the people as Officers individuals who have influenced the Service and the National Park System. There has, however, not been anything that depicts the organizational Directors structure, its growth, and/or the influence that people within the organization have had on the organization. What began as an agreement to update a listing Key Staff Officials of Washington Office key officials has expanded in an effort to put on paper St. the graphic organization over the years that will add to the continuing Number "Two" administrative history of the organization. Senior Operations Officers The Service has been called a "family organization." John Carver, a former Assistant Secretary, condemned the "mystique" of the Service. Both are evident when the organizational structural history is looked at from its beginning to the present. When reviewed along with literature such as The National Park Service by William C. Everhart, Parks, Politics and the People by Conrad L. Wirth, Family Tree of The National Park System by Ronald F. Lee, The National Parks: Shaping the System by Barry Mackintosh, Administrative History: Expansion of the National Park Service in the 1930's by Unrau & Williss, and America's National Parks and Their Keepers, by Ronald A. Foresta, it becomes very apparent that the organization and the people within it have had a profound influence on each other over the years. http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b1.htm 12/23/2003 N National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 2 of 3 The sense of family and the mystique can be visually related to what has gone on over the past 68 years. Individuals who were in the organization in the early years continued through the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. R. M. Holmes, who was the Chief Clerk in 1925, was still the Assistant Personnel Officer in 1938; Frank Kittredge, who was Chief Engineer in 1928, was the first Regional Director of Region IV (Western), was Superintendent of Yosemite in 1942 and again Chief Engineer through 1952; Harold Bryant, who was Assistant Director, Research & Education in 1928, was Superintendent of Grand Canyon in the 1940's; Preston Patraw, an early Superintendent at Bryce and Zion, was Finance Officer in the 1940's; Howard Baker, a landscape architect in the early 1930's, Chief of Planning and Design in Omaha, and Regional Director in Omaha in the 1950's, retired as Associate Director in the late 1960's; Eivind Scoyen, Superintendent at several areas from the 1920's, retired as Associate Director in the mid-1960's, to mention a few. These people and many others molded and shaped those that followed. Fathers begat sons and daughters who have continued the "mystique" and furthered the family image. As examples, Benjamin Hadley, Superintendent, son Lawrence, Superintendent and Assistant Director; Daniel J. Tobin, Superintendent and Regional Director, sons, one at Yellowstone and Daniel Jr. (Jim), Superintendent, Deputy Regional Director, Associate Director and Regional Director; John Cook, Master Mechanic, son John Cook, Superintendent, grandson John Cook, Superintendent, Associate Director, and Regional Director; Gabriel Sovulewski, Park Supervisor, Yosemite, son-in-law Frank Ewing, Trail Foreman, and grandson Herbert Ewing, District Ranger; Fred Binnewies, Ranger, Superintendent, sons Robert and William, Superintendents. Many of the individuals prominent in the early organization are still alive and continue to have influence on the Service as it exists today. That factor was emphasized to Director George B. Hartzog in the late 1960's by former Director Horace Albright after one of his yearly inspection trips to Yellowstone. Albright, and indeed all retired employees, believe they retain the inalienable right to suggest ways of improving the operations of the National Park Service. (continued) Top History Links to the Past I National Park Service Search Contact Last Modified: EDT http://www.cr.nps.gov/adhi1/adhi-b1.htm ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b1.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: History of the National Park Service, Directors of National Park Service Page 1 of 8 History Links to the Past I Search National Park Service Home National Park Service History Online Books Historical Themes Maritime History Stephen Tyng Mather and his staff in Washington, D.C., 1927 or 1928. From left to right, Arno B. Cammerer, Arthur E. Demaray, Stephen T. Mather, George A. Moskey and Horace M. Albright. Research and Education Directors of the National Park Service Stephen T. Mather, May 16, 1917 - January 8, 1929 A wealthy, gregarious businessman, Stephen T. Mather came to Washington from Chicago in January 1915 as special assistant to Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane for national park concerns. His vigorous efforts to build public and political support for the parks helped persuade Congress to create the National Park Service in 1916. Appointed the first NPS director in May 1917, he continued to promote park access, development, and use and contributed generously to the parks from his personal fortune. During his tenure the service's domain expanded eastward with the addition of Shenandoah, Great Smoky Mountains, and Mammoth Cave national parks. Periodically disabled by manic-depression, Mather left office in January 1929 after suffering a stroke and died a year later. Suggested reading: Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (3rd ed.; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976). M 12 1020 a http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/direct.htm 11/27/2001 National Park Service History: History of the National Park Service, Directors of National Park Service Page 2 of 8 1933 Horace M. Albright came to the Interior Department from California in 1913 at the age of 23. After Mather's arrival Albright assisted him in overseeing the department's national parks and monuments and working for passage of the National Park Service legislation. Appointed NPS assistant director in May 1917, he acted as director for nearly two years while Mather was disabled by depression and launched the bureau's operations. From 1919 to 1929 he superintended Yellowstone National Park but continued to play a leading role in servicewide affairs. As Mather's successor in January 1929, he engineered the further expansion of an essentially western, natural park system to a truly national park system encompassing historic sites and memorials. He left for a private business career in August 1933 after obtaining the Agriculture and War departments' national monuments and military parks and the national capital parks, but he retained close ties to the NPS until his death in 1987. Suggested readings: Horace M. Albright as told to Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 1913-33 (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1985); Horace M. Albright and Marian Albright Schenck, Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Years (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999); Donald C. Swain, ? Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). Arno B. Cammerer, August 10, 1933 - August 9, 1940 Arno B. Cammerer replaced Albright as assistant director in 1919, serving as Mather's right- hand man in Washington and acting for him in his frequent absences over the next decade. He advanced to the new rank of associate director in 1928, then succeeded Albright as director in August 1933. Under his leadership the NPS became involved with recreational area planning and management, supervised the Civilian Conservation Corps in both national and state parks, and began to survey and record historic sites and buildings outside the parks. Strained relations with Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes impaired his effectiveness and health, and he stepped down after a heart attack in 1940 to become the service's eastern regional director. He died in that position the following year. Newton B. Drury, August 20, 1940 - March 31, 1951 http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/direct.htm 11/27/2001 ational Park Service History: History of the National Park Service, Directors of National Park Service Page 3 of 8 Newton B. Drury declined appointment as director in 1933 but accepted the job in 1940. He was the first director without prior national park responsibilities but came with strong conservationist credentials, having served as executive secretary of the Save- the-Redwoods League in California. During World War II he successfully resisted most demands for consumptive uses of park resources. Less eager than his predecessors to expand the park system, he opposed NPS involvement with areas he judged not to meet national park standards. Differences with Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman over Chapman's support for dams in Dinosaur National Monument contributed to Drury's resignation in 1951. He died in 1978. Arthur E. Demaray, April 1, 1951 - December 8, 1951 Formerly a draftsman with the U.S. Geological Survey, Arthur E. Demaray moved to the NPS when its headquarters was first staffed in 1917. His brief tenure as NPS director in 1951 before his planned retirement was a reward for his long and distinguished service, after 1933 as associate director. In the second spot during the tumultuous New Deal and the difficult wartime years (when he remained in Washington while the headquarters office relocated to Chicago), he proved an extremely effective administrator. Perhaps his greatest accomplishment was to maintain good working relations with Harold Ickes during the irascible secretary's 13-year regime (1933-46). Demaray died in 1958. Conrad L. Wirth, December 9, 1951 - January 7, 1964 Trained as a landscape architect and previously employed by the National Capital Park and Planning Commission, Conrad L. Wirth joined the NPS as an assistant director in 1931. With the coming of the New Deal he supervised the service's Civilian Conservation Corps program in the state parks. His administrative ability marked him to succeed Demaray, whom he served as associate director before advancing to the top job in December 1951. Wirth's crowning :://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/direct.htm 11/27/2001 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 1 of 3 Organizational Structure of the National Park Administrative History: Service - 1917 to 1985 - Administrative History Organizational Structure Organizational Structures of the NPS 1917 to 1985 1917 - 1924 MENU Although August 25, 1916, is recognized as the establishment date of the National Park Service, it was not until May 16, 1917, with the appointment of Preface Stephen T. Mather as Director, that a formal structure was established. From a simple beginning the Service has evolved into what is now a highly complex Organizational organizational structure. Stephen Mather's "family" organization has grown to Structure an organization of interdependent groups having differing ways of accomplishing work, yet they are still interrelated subsystems of the whole. Epilogue There is, however, a decided difference in the "family" of yesterday versus the "family" of today. The evolution of National Park Service organizational structure has been the result of both internal and external forces acting on the Organizational Charts organization and the people within the organization. Organizational change occurs in all organizations (work, home, church, etc.). What one must consider is that specific actions to initiate organizational change are taken by people, and complex organizations being what they are, those at the head are Naturalists, Rangers, & Historians the primary change agents. Senior Administration Basically, there are two kinds of organization, formal and informal. The term Officers formal, as it relates to organizational structure, refers only to the fact that those responsible for maintaining the existence of the organization can Directors describe its form in language and symbols such as charts and manuals. An informal organization is that which is not documented or made a part of some Key Staff Officials sort of continuing record. Such organizational structure definition is not to be confused with how an organization accomplishes its work. The National Park Number "Two" Ej Service has a long history of organizations that work through people moving up, down, or laterally, where "titles" and "report to's" mean little as long as the Senior Operations Officers mission of the Service is or was accomplished. What is interesting when one looks at the National Park Service organization charts over the years is: With the exception of new program thrusts, program additions or deletions, the organization has functioned with substantially the same supervisory structure. The formal structure, while exhibiting growth has basically remained the same. The organization was and is a social structure, although in the past http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b2.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 2 of 3 Se several years the social aspects of the structure are far more apparent in the field and through the Employees and Alumni Association, the 1916 Society, and the National Park Service Wives Association. There is a line of continuity that stretches back to 1917. People remained a part of the organization for long periods of time. Organizations were developed around people. On the average, there has been some sort of organizational change every 22 months. Since 1917, there have been periods of time where no formal documentation exists. There are, for example, no official, formally approved organization charts for 1917, 1918, 1920 through 1924, the mid-1940's, 1964, 1967, mid- 1970, 1971, and 1982. A reason for this may be that prior to 1955, organizational approval was vested in the Director of the National Park at Service. After 1954, organizational approval was held at the agency (Department of the Interior) level with the establishment of a Departmental Manual (the National Park Service portion of the Departmental Manual is Part 145). However, for the period 1916 to 1985 we were able to locate more than 55 examples of formal and informal descriptions of organizations from which it was possible to develop 38 organizational depictions. These sources ranged from National Archives documents to telephone directories. As one looks at the organizational structure there have probably been no more than eight major changes in how the Service was organized to accomplish its mission. As examples, the following might be considered as major: First organization in 1917 (for obvious reasons). Establishment of program Assistant Directors in the 1920's. Effect of Executive Order 61661 and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) program in the 1930's. The establishment of Regional Offices in the late 1930's. The establishment of centralized design and construction offices in the 1950's. The establishment of the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation in the 1960's. The establishment of the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service in the 1970's. The abolishment of the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service in the 1980's. Expressed as an opinion not substantiated by known fact, the remainder of the changes were more process changes or changes in flow as to who accomplished the business of the Service. In assessing and describing the organization, an hypothesis was drawn that an organization takes on the flavor of those individuals at the head of the organization. For example, Mather's interests revolved around the management of the parks, which was one of the reasons that Franklin Lane appointed him. His organizations were small central offices designed to meet necessary park needs. As there was a recognition of increased need, his apparent thrusts were to put the needs close http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b2.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 1 of 4 Organizational Structure of the National Park Administrative History Service the - 1917 to 1985 - Administrative History Organizational Structure Organizational Structures of the NPS 1917 to 1985 1925-1932 MENU As the Service grew, by 1925 the importance of Preface public relations and administration as we think Organizational of them in 1985, was Structure reflected in the establishment of a function Epilogue of Operations and Public Relations (as one reflects, Mather was considered by Organizational Charts many to be a great salesman and many of his actions reflected this skill) headed by an Assistant in Naturalists, Rangers, & Historians Operations and Public Relations (see chart #3). One should note that Senior Administration Officers Arthur E. Demaray in the 1930's. From a historical Administration, as it is viewpoint one of the most influential, tireless, behind-the- known today, was titled Directors scenes National Park Service employees. Operations and it was not until 1951 that it was to become specifically titled an administrative function. Key Staff Officials Arthur E. Demaray, after starting as a draftsman in 1917, was to become an C Assistant Director, Associate Director, and Director in the course of a 34-year Number "Two" career with the National Park Service. What began as an investigative unit in 1925 and subsequently became Auditors of Park Operators (concessions) Senior Operations Officers Accounts was what appears to be the genesis of the current Concessions Division. The early functional statement read: "Examine and audit the books of the public utilities which operate in the National Parks and Monuments under franchises; obtain by independent investigation full details concerning operations and financial consideration of public operators; recommend changes in rates or services." Comparing this to this current functional statement there is little change except in language usage. C. L. Gable was in effect "Mr. Concessions" from 1925 to 1946. An http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b3.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 2 of 4 education (natural history) unit or the beginnings of the Service interpretive program was also established in a California office on the University of California's Berkeley campus. By 1927 the Service had established its own legal function (see chart #5) that was to continue until the mid- 1950's when all legal functions were George A. Moskey, the first National Park Service lawyer, consolidated in the 1927 to 1944. Department of the Interior's Office of the Solicitor. In this 28-year period the Service was to have only two legal officers, George A. Moskey for 17 years and Jackson E. Price for 11 years. An interesting point is that for many years, well into the 1950's, the lawyers actually did all contractual work for the Service. Today, procurement is an accepted part of the Administrative function. Jackson Price went on to become an Assistant Director and a Regional Director before retiring in the late 1960's. This can be construed as family if one is SO disposed, as functions moved out of the Service or were dropped anyone who wanted to stay with the Service did SO. In 1928 the title of the Director's alter-ego position was changed from Assistant Director to Associate Director; the title did not change again until 1967 when it became Deputy Director. Arno B. Cammerer held this position from 1919 until he became Director in 1933. He then went on in 1940 to become Regional Director, Region I, Richmond, Virginia (now Southeast Region, Atlanta, Georgia). In 1928, there was organizational recognition that forestry was important when Education and Forestry became a combined organizational entity. When Education and Forestry were combined the functional statement read: "Supervises museum construction and installation of exhibits; forestry projects and fire prevention; carries on survey of wildlife." This unit, if tracked through the organization, (see chart #39) was the beginning of the resource management, museum and exhibit productions, and ranger activities functions as they exist today in the Division of Visitor Services, Harpers Ferry Center, the Division of Biological Resources and the National Park Service portion of the Boise Interagency Fire Center. By 1930 (see chart #7), the Headquarters office had five well defined functional activities, four of which were then or would come under Assistant Directors: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b3.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 1 of 5 Organizational Structure of the National Park Administrative Service the - 1917 to 1985 - Administrative History Organizational Structure Organizational Structures of the NPS 1917 to 1985 1933-1953 MENU As one looks at charts for 1933 and 1934 (see charts Preface #10 & #11) it is apparent that functionally the Organizational Service was becoming Structure more specialized. The CCC functions, although Epilogue not specifically mentioned, were in a Recreational Land Planning unit under Conrad L. Wirth who was Organizational Charts Verne E. Chatelain, First National Park Service Historian and Assistant Director, Historic Sites & Buildings. subsequently to become Associate Director and Director. Although not appearing on any formal chart, the decentralization of Naturalists, Rangers, & Historians the CCC program and the decentralization of the Planning and Design functions into Eastern and Western Divisions with district offices (see chart Senior Administration #11) may well have been the genesis of the thinking to establish Regional Officers Offices. The late 1934 organization (see chart #11) clearly reflects Executive Order 6166 and the needs of the organization to accommodate its increased Directors functions or responsibilities. History achieved Branch status in 1935 with a supervising Assistant Director (see chart #12). Key Staff Officials S Númber "Two" E' Senior Operations Officers The first Regional Directors from L to R: Frank Kittredge, Region IV, San Francisco, California; Thomas Allen, Region II, Omaha, Nebraska; Herbert Maier, Region III, Santa http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b4.htm 12/23/2003 Night National Park Service: Administrative History-Organizational Structures (1917-1985) Page 2 of 5 Fe, New Mexico; Carl Russell, Region I, Richmond, Virginia. The organization formally approved in October 1938 [1] (see chart #15) did two things. It established a new way of of managing by creating Regional Offices. Additionally, for whatever reason -- internal politics or external politics or perhaps even a power struggle or, as suggested by George Palmer, a major funding problem -- all Assistant Director positions were abolished. The Conrad Wirths, Hillory Tolsons, Ronald Lees, etc, all became Supervisors of functions. It was not until July of 1943 (see chart #17) that Hillory Tolson would again become an Assistant Director in the Chicago office where the Service Headquarters was moved to during World War II, and it was not until 1949 (see chart #20) that an additional Assistant Director position for Conrad Wirth was again created. Newton Drury, although of the same era and same school system (University of California, Berkeley) as Horace Albright and Lawrence Merriam (Regional Director, Omaha, Nebraska, and San Francisco, California), was restrained by his stringent sense of bureaucratic propriety. Characterized as a "died in the wool purist," he espoused a caretaker role for the National Park Service as well as minimal development. He did not like the rough and tumble politics of Washington, which did not do either him or the Service any good. His preservation philosophy during the war years did serve the Service well as he was able to keep the Army and Navy from running away with the parks. Several historians view that even though Mr. Drury was constrained by the war years his administration was a clear shift of emphasis from that of Mather, Albright and Cammerer. It perhaps initiated a reversal from which the Service has never totally recovered as its functions became more diverse. His handling of the Echo Park Dam controversy in Dinosaur National Monument was divisive to the organization's external support. Newton B. Drury, the fourth National Park Service Director, being sworn in August 20, 1940. L to R: Under Secretary Wirtz; Floyd Dotson, Chief Clerk, Department of the Interior; Director Drury; Secretary Harold Ickes. An interesting organization was that in the Chicago office during the World War II years (see chart #17). Arthur Demaray as Associate Director remained in Washington while Director Drury and Assistant Director Tolson relocated to Chicago with the Headquarters office. Mr. Demaray remained in Washington because he was apparently the only experienced Congressional http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/adhi-b4.htm 12/23/2003 Page 1 of 1 Redress / * these I *** sociales * the NATIONAL **** think Service Collection Happens Ferry DIRECTOR ORGANIZATION M Center, states Ferry WAS Virginia material I * EFFECT UNTIL / Harry Expenses of the - Horace M. Albright *** Service is to ***** (190% NOTE Executive a (to 8-9-33) * - inconclusive I Arno B. Cammerer if - Pass. $ I Park Sexix (from 8-10-33) Congress approved ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Arno 8. Cammerer (to 8-9-33) Arthur E. Demaray BRANCH OF BRANCH OF USE. LAW (from 8-10-33) BRANCH OF LANDS OPERATIONS AND REGULATIONS Arthur E. Demaray (to $-9-33) Hillory A. Tollon George A. Moskey Conrad c. With PARK OPERATORS MISCELLANEOUS MAP AND AND CONTRACT ACCOUNTS DRAFTING SECTION SECTION FIELD CASTERN C.L. Gable HEADQUARTERS DIVISION DIVISION OF CONTROL DIVISION LEGISLATIVE INVESTIGATION OF RECORDS AREAS PROPOSED LANDSCAPE CHIEF CLERK ARCHITECTURE ENGINEERING DIVISION DIVISION DISTRICT $ R. M. Holmes Thomas c. Viet Frank A. Kittredge C.A. Davidson ACCOUNTS DIVISION DISTRICT 2 K. G. McCarter DISTRICT 3 DISTRICT $ DISTRICT , NATIONAL PARKS MAILS AND R. Krellenkamp M. $ Sager (Vacant) AND NATIONAL FILES DIVISION MONUMENTS DISTRICT 4 DISTRICT 6 DISTRICT 8 H. Langley J.B. Wosky H.W. Baker Addison / is issue in I Testion *** is inconclusive * hypothetical organization denote association outside Washington, D.C. t http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/olsen/images/adhi10.jpg 12/23/2003 8/02 THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE A Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Album William Sontag and Linda Griffin, Photo Editors Essay by Paul Schullery 1991 ROBERTS RINEHART PUBLISHERS 2. This photographic history portrays the people and the places that have comprised what Wallace Stegner has called "the best idea we ever had"- the national parks. From the far outposts of the southwest to the historic battlefields of the east, the ubiquitous park ranger has been there to protect the scenery, enforce the law, and interpret wonders for generations of Americans. This book celebrates both the resource that is our national park system and the individuals who have guided it through seventy-five years of growth and change. i A child gets a better view of the Grand Canyon through the assistance of the National Park Service. Date unknown. Photographer unknown ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The publisher gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the following individuals, without whose help this book would not have been possible: Bill Sontag, 75th Anniversary Project Director; Linda Griffin, who assembled the outstanding collection of photographs from which the selections for this book were made; Tom DuRant, Librarian at the NPS Harper's Ferry Center; and John Albright, who cast the eye of the historian over all of the captions. Thanks also to Paul Schullery for contributing a thoughtful essay on the meaning of the National Park Service in its 75th year. Finally, we would be remiss if we did not acknowledge the great contribution of those early photographers-many of whose names are no longer known to us-who have left us this outstanding chronicle of "one of the best ideas we've ever had." THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE / 120 4. Lunchtime in Piegan Pass, Glacier National Park, 1932. George A. Grant photo Facing page, above: Acadia National Park, 1934. Allan Rinehart photo. Below: Rocky Mountain National Park, early 1900s. Photographer unknown TOURISTS AT PLAY / 103 ON THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE / 102 Benefactors and Boosters Augmenting activists in government were private citizens who played a key role in promoting-and creating-the national parks. Pictured at the top of the facing page is J. Horace McFarland, whose American Civic Association vigorously lobbied for the creation of the National Park Service (Kazanjian Studio, 1920s). Below McFarland is John D. Rockefeller, Jr. whose donations to such parks as Grand Teton, Great Smoky Mountains, Acadia and others were unequalled. UPI photo. Shown at the top of this page is Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. in 1925, who with his famous father greatly influenced landscape planning in the parks. PIONEERS AND LEADERS / 47 Bene Augme: Pictured creation to such this pag THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE / 46 Founders, Both Philosophical and Practical Franklin Knight Lane, Secretary of the Interior when the National Park Service was established on August 25, 1916. Photographer unknown Right: Perhaps the two greatest influences in the development of our public lands policies are shown together in this rare photograph taken at Muir Woods National Monument. At left is John Muir, the philosophical conscience of the national parks; at right is Gifford Pinchot, whose utilitarian views on forest management guided the National Forest Service. Seated between them is Congressman William Kent, one of the drafters of the National Park Service Organic Act. Hauser photo Left: John Muir in Yosemite, 1907. Francis Fultz photo PIONEERS AND LEADERS / 43 National Park Service: The First 75 Years Page 1 of 2 National Park Service The First 75 Years 200 National Park Service The First 75 Years http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/sontag/index.htm 7/16/2002 National Park Service: The First 75 Years Page 2 of 2 Preserving Our Past For The Future more TABLE OF CONTENTS Top History I Links to the Past I National Park Service I Search Contact Last Modified: Dec 1 2000 10:00:00 pm PDT http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/sontag/index.htm ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/sontag/index.htm 7/16/2002 Interpretation in the Nati Service: A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh2/origins_before_nps.htm with National Park Service INTERPRETATION IN THE NATIONAL PARK Home SERVICE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by Barry Mackintosh --Origins Before the National Park Service Well before some of America's most spectacular natural places were reserved as national parklands in the last half of the 19th century, persons --The Park S en seeking adventure and inspiration visited them. Some of these pre-park Assumes R ibility visitors found the wild beauties of these lands sufficient to occupy their attention. Others, supplementing aesthetic appreciation with scientific --Interpretati curiosity, sought to understand and explain the remarkable natural Institutionali phenomena they encountered. Among the latter was John Muir. In 1871, while living and working near Yosemite Valley, Muir recorded in his notebook, "I'll interpret the rocks, learn the language of flood, storm and the avalanche. I'll acquaint myself with the glaciers and wild gardens, and get as near the heart of the world --Branching tory as [ can." Muir's use here of "interpret" has been cited as the first precedent for its later adoption by the National Park Service,[ 1 although --The Import Historical In plation the context suggests an effort more toward understanding than communication. --Inagurating Muir did communicate the natural values of the Sierra eloquently through Program his writings. Other forerunners of written park interpretation include The Yosemite Guide-Book of 1869 by J. D. Whitney, California State --Historical C nes Geologist, and In the Heart of the Sierras by James Mason Hutchings, a former Yosemite Valley hotel operator, published in 1886. After the U.S. Army assumed protection duties in Yellowstone National Park in 1886, some of the soldiers stationed in the Upper Geyser Basin --New Direct undertook to explain thermal features to visitors. These early interpretive "cone talks" owed little to scientific knowledge, but they were no worse --Audiovisual than the explanations forthcoming from commercial sources in the park. Innovations According to Robert Shankland: --Museums. In the early days at Yellowstone, the tourist who neglected to Centers, an W stuff himself in advance at the encyclopedias was liable to Look have a dark time of it among the volcanic phenomena. There was little on-the-spot enlightenment. Most --Living Hist stagecoach drivers liked to descant to the customers, but in a vein of bold invention. A few voluble guides worked out of --Environme the hotels; they cruelly punished the natural sciences. Under Interpretatio the regulations the guides could charge no fees. They did well, however, on tips, which they induced by a classic --Women in method: every audience harbored an unacknowledged Interpretatio accomplice, who at the end of a guide's remarks voiced resounding appreciation and, with a strong look around, --Other Age extended a generous cash award. [2] After the turn of the century some improvement in the quality of public presentations was evident. The Wylie Camping Company, which housed Yellowstone visitors in tents, recruited teachers who gave lectures and 1 of 3 1/24/01 1:46 PM Interpretation in the National Service: A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh2/origins_before_nps.htm --Interpreting campfire programs while performing other duties. Elsewhere, the trend Interpretation was illustrated in and near the future Rocky Mountain National Park. Enos Mills, who established Longs Peak Inn near Estes Park, Colorado, in 1901, was an American pioneer in "nature guiding." While working for establishment of the national park--achieved in 1915--Mills led and promoted guided hikes through the area aimed at appreciation of its natural values. [3] --Interpretation risis In 1905 Frank Pinkley, custodian of the Casa Grande Ruin Reservation (later Casa Grande National Monument) in Arizona Territory, pioneered another category of interpretation when he assembled a sampling of pre-historic artifacts recovered from archeological excavation in the ruin. --Memo Pinkley's display has been called the forerunner of national park museum exhibits.[4 The year before, 1st Lt. Henry F. Pipes, a surgeon with the 9th --Photograph Cavalry stationed in Yosemite National Park, laid out paths and labeled 36 species of plants near Wawona as part of an arboretum. This natural exhibit was abandoned after it was discovered to lie on private land, and the military superintendent's plan for an adjoining museum and library building was not realized. By 1915 Yosemite did have what it called a museum, in the form of a flora and fauna specimen collection exhibited in --Origins the headquarters building. [5] --Branching Of the several forms of early park explanatory media, publications reached the largest audience. In 1911 Laurence F. Schmeckebier, the --New Direc Department of the Interior's clerk in charge of publications, asked the superintendents of the larger parks to submit material for a series of --Interpreting handbooks containing basic information on access, accommodations, and Interpretation the like. A second handbook series promoted by Schmeckebier and written by Smithsonian Institution and U.S. Geological Survey scientists --Interpretation risis interpreted major park features. Booklets included The Secret of the Big Trees: Yosemite Sequoia and General Grant National Parks (1913) by Ellsworth Huntington, Origin of Scenic Features of Glacier National Park (1914) by N. R. Campbell, Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers (1914) by F. E. Matthes, and Fossil Forests of Yellowstone National Park (1914) by F. H. Knowlton. In a 1912 article in Popular Science Monthly, "the national parks from the educational and scientific side," Schmeckebier publicized the values forthcoming from popular study and professional research. [6] Schmeckebier's activities were part of an Interior Department effort to build popular support for the national parks and political support for creation of a new bureau within the department to manage them. In 1915 Stephen T. Mather began to advance these objectives full time as special assistant to the Secretary of the Interior for national parks. Mather hired Robert Sterling Yard, a former colleague on the New York Sun, to handle park publicity (personally paying his $5,000 salary). They tied their campaign to the contemporary "see America first" movement, aimed at encouraging affluent vacationers to spend their dollars at home rather than abroad. Yard's first product was The National Parks Portfolio , financed with $43,000 contributed by 17 western railroads profiting from park tourism. Two hundred seventy-five thousand copies of this lavishly illustrated publication were printed in June 1916 and distributed free to prominent Americans, including members of Congress. "It is the destiny of the national parks, if wisely controlled, to become the public laboratories of nature study for the nation," Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane wrote in its introduction.| Thus, while the promotion was grounded in economic and political considerations, it advanced the prospect of an overriding educational purpose for the parks. 2 of 3 1/24/01 1:46 PM Interpretation in the National P. Service: A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_boo...2/origins_nps_assumes_responsibility.htm four National Park Service INTERPRETATION IN THE NATIONAL PARK Home SERVICE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by Barry Mackintosh --Origins The Park Service Assumes Responsibility --Before NPS Doubtless influenced by the publicity campaign, Congress passed the National Park Service bill in August 1916, and the new bureau began operating the following year with Mather as director and Horace M. Albright as his assistant. Heavy publicity to promote and aid park tourism--and thereby to stimulate increased Park Service --Interpretation appropriations--continued under Yard, who became chief of the Service's Institutionalized "educational division" (a nonofficial capacity in which Mather continued to pay his salary). Yard turned out a second edition of The National Parks Portfolio in 1917 with added sections on Hot Springs and the lesser parks and monuments, omitted from the original publication. The Service also disseminated more than 128,000 park circulars, 83,000 automobile guide --Branching Into History maps, and 117,000 pamphlets titled "glimpses of our national parks" that year and circulated 348,000 feet of motion picture film to schools, --The Importance of churches, and other organizations. 8 Historical Interpre ation A letter from Secretary Lane to Director Mather in May 1918--drafted by --Inagurating the Horace Albright--constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement. It reiterated the concept of the parks as educational media: Program -Historical Challeages The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way. University and high-school classes in science will find special facilities for their vacation period studies. Museums containing specimens of wild flowers, shrubs, and trees and mounted animals, birds, and fish native to the parks, and --New Directions other exhibits of this character, will be established as authorized. [9] --Audiovisual Innovations Despite this high-level expression of support, the idea of the Park Service being in the education business-beyond dispensing basic tourist --Museums, Visit information--was not widely applauded. Yard later recalled the obstacles Centers, and th ew he faced during the bureau's first years: Look Educational promotion wasn't much of a success at first. No --Living History one in Washington took any interest in it except Mr. Mather, spasmodically; Congressmen smiled over it; and with a very --Environmental few exceptions the concessioners opposed it. Somebody Interpretation politically influential on the Pacific Coast slammed the whole idea of education in national parks by letter to his Senator --Women in who called up Secretary Lane about it, and Lane phoned Interpretation down to Mather that he'd better go slow on that unpopular kind of stuff. Thus the cause passed under a heavy cloud --Other Agendas just as things were beginning to look hopeful. But I still kept my title, and hammered away as inconspicuously as possible. [10] With Congress reluctant to support park educational activities, outside 1 of 4 1/24/01 1:47 PM Interpretation in the National Pa: Service: A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_boo...2/origins_nps_assumes_responsibility.htr --Interpreting sponsorship would play a large role during the first decade of Park Interpretation Service operation. Charles D. Wolcott, secretary of the Smithsonian, organized a National Parks Educational Committee in 1918. With Mather's help, it spawned the National Parks Association in May 1919. Yard moved over to become executive secretary of the association, among whose purposes were "to interpret the natural sciences which are illustrated in the scenic features, flora and fauna of the national parks and monuments, --Interpretation and to circulate popular information concerning them in text and picture," and "to encourage the popular study of the history, exploration, tradition, and folk lore of the national parks and monuments." [ 11 ] In the parks themselves, most educational or interpretive programs were --Memo undertaken or aided by outside parties. In 1917 Rocky Mountain National Park examined and licensed young women as nature guides; the women --Photographs were employed by local hotels. Mesa Verde National Park that year rehabilitated a ranger station for museum purposes and in 1918 installed five cases of excavated artifacts and photo enlargements of the park's ruins. There J. Walter Fewkes, a Smithsonian archeologist, lectured on his work in the park. The University of California extension division inaugurated a lecture series in memory of Professor Joseph LeConte at --Origins Yosemite in 1919 and continued it through 1923. Speakers the first summer included Professor Willis L. Jepson of the university on botany; --Branching Into tory William Frederic Bade, John Muir's literary executor, on Muir; Professor A.L. Kroeber of the university on local Indians; and Francois Emile --New Direction Matthes of the U.S. Geological Survey on geology. Matthes stayed in the park, giving additional talks in the public camps and at Sierra Club --Interpreting campfires.[12 Interpretation Notwithstanding precedents elsewhere, the first reasonably --Interpretation Crisis comprehensive interpretive programs directed by the Park Service blossomed at both Yosemite and Yellowstone in 1920. Visiting Fallen Leaf Lake in the Tahoe region the year before, Mather had been impressed with a program of nature guiding and evening lectures conducted by Professor Loye Holmes Miller of the University of California at Los Angeles and Dr. Harold C. Bryant, educational director of the California Fish and Game Commission. Mather persuaded Miller and Bryant to transfer their activities to Yosemite the following summer. There Bryant organized and directed the Yosemite Free Nature Guide Service. The program included daily guided hikes, evening campfire talks, and lectures at Camp Curry illustrated by motion pictures. "The response has been so great that we are sure there will be sufficient demand not only to continue the work in Yosemite National Park but to extend it to other parks," Bryant reported of the first season's activity.[13 At Yellowstone, Superintendent Horace M. Albright made Ranger Milton P. Skinner the Service's first officially designated park naturalist. Employed earlier by the Yellowstone Park Association, Skinner had long studied the park's natural features and advocated an educational service. With two seasonal rangers hired by Albright for interpretation, he now conducted field trips, gave lectures, and prepared natural history bulletins for posting in the park.[ 14 ] Yosemite and Yellowstone simultaneously advanced in museum development. Ranger Ansel F. Hall organized the Yosemite Museum Association in 1920 to plan and raise funds for a new park museum. The next year he began converting the former studio of artist Chris Jorgensen to museum use. Containing six rooms designated for history, ethnology, geology, natural history, botany, and trees, it featured a scale model of Yosemite galley built by Hall and mounted birds and mammals prepared by Chief Ranger Forest S. Townsley. The museum opened in June 1922. Hilton Skinner started Yellowstone's park museum in 1920 in a former bachelor officers' quarters at Mammoth Hot Springs (the building still functions as a museum there). His exhibits included mammal specimens 2 of 4 1/24/01 1:47 PM Interpretation in the National A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_boo...2/origins_nps_assumes_responsibility.htm prepared by Chief Ranger Sam T. Woodring. [15] Director Mather's 1920 annual report called for "the early establishment of adequate museums in every one of our parks" for exhibiting regional flora, fauna, and minerals. Because appropriated funds for park museums and related programs were not forthcoming, it became customary to seek outside support. The case of Yosemite exemplifies this pattern. Ansel Hall met Chauncey J. Hamlin, vice president and later president of the American Association of Museums, in 1921 and impressed him with the need for a better park museum. Hamlin established and chaired the AAM Committee on Museums in National Parks (later the Committee on Outdoor Education), which included such long-time park supporters as Hermon C. Bumpus, John C. Merriam, and Clark Wissler. The committee sought "establishment of small natural-history museums in a number of the larger parks." Through its efforts, the AAM obtained a $70,500 grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1924 to build and equip permanent Yosemite museum. Hall, who had become chief naturalist of the National Park Service the year before, was appointed executive agent of the AAM for the new museum (temporarily leaving the Park Service payroll). Carl P. Russell, Hall's successor as park naturalist, simultaneously replaced the Yosemite Museum Association with the Yosemite Natural History Association, broadened to promote a range of related programs. In addition to supporting development of the museum, it would gather and disseminate information on the park's natural and human history, contribute to the educational activities of the Yosemite Nature Guide Service, promote scientific investigation, maintain a library, study and preserve the customs and legends of the remaining Indians of the region, and publish Yosemite Nature Notes in cooperation with the Park Service. [17] Hermon C. Bumpus, who had been first director of the American Museum of Natural History in New York, had strong ideas about park museums and took virtual command of the Yosemite project. In addition to the museum planned for Yosemite Valley, he promoted a "focal point" okout facility at Glacier Point as best representing what park museums hould be about: The controlling fact governing the development of educational work in the national parks is that within these reservations multitudes are brought directly in contact with striking examples of Nature's handicraft. To lead these people away from direct contact with Nature. is contrary to the spirit of the enterprise. The real museum is outside the walls of the building and the purpose of the museum work is to render the out-of-doors intelligible. It is out of this conception that a smaller specialized museum, the trailside museum, takes its origin. [18] Architect Herbert Maier, who would have a long career in Park Service construction and management, designed both structures. The Glacier oint lookout was completed in 1925. The Yosemite Valley museum was nished in 1926 and served as park interpretive headquarters until 1968, hen it was incorporated in an expanded visitor center. The AAM also played an active role in museum development at Grand Canyon and Yellowstone national parks during the 1920s. Another grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1926 funded the servation station and museum overlooking the Grand Canyon at ivapai Point. Ansel Hall continued in AAM employ on the project, and hn C. Merriam-- formerly professor of paleontology at Berkeley, later 3 of 4 1/24/01 1:47 PM Interpretation in the National A Historical Perspective http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_boo...2/origins_nps_assumes_responsibility.htm lead of the Carnegie Institution of Washington- spearheaded it for the park museum committee. Herbert Maier again drew the plans. When the Rockefeller money ran out, Merriam personally paid for one of the large windows and got a $3,000 grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York to finish the work. The structure opened in 1930. [ 19 ] Yellowstone was beneficiary of a $112,000 grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial for museum development in 1928. Over the objections of Park Naturalist Dorr G. Yeager, Hermon Bumpus decided pon small "focal point" museums at Old Faithful, Madison Junction, and Norris Geyser Basin rather than a single, major one. These structures, at Fishing Bridge, and a "trailside shrine" exhibit at Obsidian Cliff were impleted to Herbert Maier's designs between 1928 and 1931. [20] the fall of 1928 Bumpus arranged an extensive tour of American useums for Yosemite's Carl Russell, seeking to develop him as a useum professional within the Park Service. The next year Russell was omoted to a new position, of field naturalist specializing in exhibit anning and preparation for the parks. In this capacity, assisted by Dorr ager, Russell took charge of the exhibits and curation for the new ellowstone museums. Among the interpretive devices he inherited were portable working models of geysers, erupting to a height of 2-1/2 feet ch minute, built for Yellowstone by the Service's Education Division in 26.[21] esa Verde and Lassen Volcanic national parks were among other areas nefiting from private philanthropy in museum development during the 20s. Superintendent and Mrs. Jesse L. Nusbaum of Mesa Verde suaded Stella H. Leviston of San Francisco and John D. Rockefeller, to contribute $5,000 each for a new museum there, built between 23 and 1925. In 1929 the Loomis Memorial Museum, previously built by Loomis family on adjacent land, was donated to Lassen. Not until 30 did federal money fund a park museum: the Sinnott Memorial, a ne observation station on the edge of Crater Lake, honoring the late ep. Nicholas J. Sinnott of Oregon. Even then, the Carnegie Foundation for its exhibits and equipment. An information station-museum near cky Mountain National Park headquarters was jointly funded in this anner the following year. [22] Top Last Modified: July 9, 2000 09:35:00 pm PST http://www.cr.nps.gov/ ParkNet National Park Service 4 of 4 1/24/01 1:47 PM Copu - 2. Mieul classia October 23, 1933 15/13/20 stration MEMORANDUM FOR MR. HALL: The attached summary of needs in the Museum field of the N. P.I.S. Educational Department is submitted as justification in the matter of securing adequate organizati on adidas for museum work. n O. P. Russell Field Naturalist to CPRINNP PLANS FOR PARKS MUSEUMS For more than ten years museums in certain national parks have demonstrated their effectiveness in interpreting park stories. They have been accepted as of first impor- tance in reaching visitors, in indexing the parks' offer- ings and in correlating the general educational activities. They provide adequate mouthpieces through which the admini- atration addresses the traveling public. Where there were but two NPS museums in 1923, there are at present twenty-five. Their combined total number of visitors each year places them, as a system, on a par with the most popular museums in America. We have, then, within the National Parks a museum system which may be regarded as a. major activity: investment in buildings, exhibits and equipment 18 great; educati onal results obtained are, distinctly, of national importance -- yet no business-like organization has been deemed necessary for its continued growth. Just as a carps of architects is needed for landstaping and building projects, and a staff of engineers required for general construction work, so museum specialists mast be employed if we are to keep abreast of the demands for visual educational work. These museum workers cannot work to the best advantage unless their activities are correlated by a gentral plan. The educational personnel in each park is quite occupied with the program of usual public contacts; were they free to apply themselves to missum tasks, it is not often that park naturalists and assistants would be capable of meeting all museum demands. The National Park Service does not anticipate the independent activity of local park staffs on projects that involve landscape prob- loms. Similarly, it is not reasonable to expect local groups to plan and produce a museum unit that will take its proper place in the NPS system as a whole. A staff of museum specialists is required. These workers should be drawn from the staffs of American museums and their appointments placed upon a competitive basis. Four skilled preparators of known accomplishment should be provided. Two should be especially skillful in taxidermy but capable in other fields, as well; one should be a modeler and figuriste, and the fourth should be a draftsman-artist. All should be capable of instructing 2. others in their fields, for, in the event that major museum projects were to be undertaken in two or more parks, simul- taneously, these permanent preparators would, necessarily, serve in supervisory capacities and develop staffs of temporary assistants. There is also immediate need for 8, research man to be- come a permanent curator on a field status. All installation plane, of course, must be preceded by thorough studies. The function of each park museum is to interpret a story or stories. It is unlikely that the NPS museum staff will attempt much original research in the field; prior work of outside students will, ordinarily, be depended upon to establish scientific facts. Presuming that auch research has been done and that publications exist, it is still necessary that the published material be explored, signifi- cant chapters selected, and the technical B tory be inter- preted for the layman. This being done, it is next necessary to go into the field and collect original material which, with diagrams, charts, photographs and labels, may be built into a finished exhibit. Such research cannot be done hurriedly. We have a responsibility to science and especially to the scientist who did the riginal research, as well as an obligation to the lay visitor who is expected to consume our product. Accuracy must be combined with clarity of expression. To secure satisfactory results in this endeavor, a worker must be equipped with a broad scientific background, perspicacity (an eye for human interest values), an ability in written expression, and the patience to correlate the interests of all agencies concerned with the installation. Exhibit prob- lems may introduce any part of the great field of science and history. The same individual who for months has been engaged in interpreting the archaeological story of the Pueblos may be called upon to produce an exhibit of the geo- chemistry of a hydro-thermal area. The proposed curator should have demonstrated his ability in some field of scientific investigation, yet he should not be so highly specialized as to find 1t impossible to transplant his interests both geographically and topically. He must be adaptable, for it will be necessary for him to follow the geologist, biologist, anthropologist, and historian. His is the task of gaining an understanding of the presentation of technical workers, and, having under- stood them, he must explain the findings by graphic means so that the layman may avail himself of them. Clearly, the muscum program of the National Parks is destined to expand greatly beyond its present scope. Present demands upon the Division cannot be met with the existing organization. 4 curator and four preparators should be provided for at once. C. P. Russell, Field Naturalist. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES, Secretary NATIONAL PARK SERVICE ARNO B. CAMMERER, Director RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL PARKS By HAROLD C. BRYANT and WALLACE W. ATWOOD, Jr. OF THE DEPARTMENT SECURITY UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1936 TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM IN THE NATIONAL PARKS Page Guided trips 8 Auto caravans 10 Nature trails 10 Historic trails 12 Exhibits in place 13 Wild-flower displays 14 Wild-life displays 15 Lectures-camp-fire talks 16 Museums and observation stations 18 Yosemite 18 Yellowstone 20 Grand Canyon 25 Crater Lake 29 Rocky Mountain 31 Hawaii 32 Lassen 32 Acadia 32 Mesa Verde 32 Mount Rainier 33 Sequoia 33 National monuments 34 Libraries 35 Nature notes and trail-side notes 36 Yosemite School of Field Natural History 37 Yosemite Junior Nature School 38 College and university field classes 39 Research 40 PART II HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT Developments' in the parks 47 Committee on Study of Educational Problems in National Parks 51 National Park Service Educational Advisory Board joins in program 51 Branch of Research and Education is established 54 How the Branch of Research and Education operates 54 Field headquarters 57 III PART II HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT The use of the national park domain as field laboratories began many years ago when a few universities conducted field courses into the wilderness areas which later became national parks. As early as 1899 Prof. Rollin D. Salisbury escorted University of Chicago geological classes into what afterwards became Glacier National Park. Drs. Thomas C. Chamberlin, Wallace W. Atwood, and J. Paul Goode followed his example. Harvard University classes visited Grand Canyon under the guidance of Prof. William Morris Davis. Dr. Douglas W. Johnson took Columbia University classes into several national parks. In this manner a dozen univer- sities might be listed that took advantage of the exceptional oppor- tunity to study science in the Nation's parks. Shortly after the establishment of the National Park Service in 1916 the germ of the educational idea came into being. As first director of the National Park Service, Stephen T. Mather early launched his plans for the development of an educational program. In 1917 Robert Sterling Yard was appointed as chief of the educa- tional division. Additional information circulars were prepared and a beautifully illustrated National Parks Portfolio was issued. These publications contained material of particular educational value and were enthusiastically welcomed by park visitors. In the field John Muir, of the Sierra Club, had attracted interest to national parks and stimulated in many persons a desire to study the geologic and biologic features of these areas. Enos Mills, in Rocky Mountain National Park, had developed nature guiding and had written articles describing methods used. Many others interested in the out-of-doors also had a part in drawing attention to the desir- ability of field studies conducted in the open. In June of 1918, realizing the growing importance of national parks as field laboratories for educational institutions, a National Park Educational Committee was organized by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, of the Smithsonian Institution. This committee, number- ing about 75 members, was composed of university presidents and representatives of leading conservation organizations throughout the country. By May of 1919 this committee merged into the National Parks Association and Mr. Yard left the Park Service to become associated with this new organization, 45 RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL PARKS 47 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PARKS While plans were being formulated in Washington to advance educational work in the parks, far away on the Pacific coast nature- guide work was finding its way into Yosemite. The concept of nature guiding in reality was a product of the world survey which brought the idea from Europe and planted it in America. In 1918 the California Fish and Game Commission sent its educational director to Yosemite National Park to deliver a number of lectures. As a stimulus to further interest in natural sciences, field trips were offered. This service met with immediate popularity and the fol- lowing year saw a more extensive program developed at other places in California. FIGURE 35.- naturalist telling the story of Yosemite Valley to a small group gathered at Glacier Point, Yosemite National Park Mr. Mather and certain friends having become keenly interested in the educational possibilities of the parks, were greatly attracted by this work, and, in 1920 they supported the movement with private funds. In that year Dr. Harold C. Bryant and Dr. Loye Holmes Miller conducted trips afield and gave lectures in Yosemite and laid the foundation for later work. The same year Milton P. Skinner was appointed park naturalist in Yellowstone National Park and a program of Government guiding and lecture service began. In 1921 two rangers were assigned to educational work, and the following year this number was increased to five. Thereafter the work in this park expanded rapidly. 48 RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL PARKS In the spring of 1921, through a cooperative arrangement with the California Fish and Game Commission, the National Park Service instituted a " free nature guide service" in Yosemite. The aim of this service was to furnish useful information regarding trees, wild flowers, birds, and mammals, and their conservation, and to stimulate interest in the scientific interpretation of natural phenomena. The means used to attain this aim were: Trips afield ; formal lectures, illustrated with lantern slides or motion pictures; 10-minute camp- fire talks, given alternately at the main resorts of the park; a stated office hour when questions regarding the natural history of the park could be answered a library of dependable reference works, and a FIGURE 36.-A group of visitors at Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park. Specially selected and instructed ranger guides conduct all visitors to and through the ruins. At special gatherings through the day, and around the camp fire in the evening, the superintendent and rangers tell the story of the cliff dwellers and of the prehistoric cultures in the Southwest flower show where the commoner wild flowers, properly labeled, were displayed. Occasionally, visiting scientists helped by giving lectures. Coincident with the above development, the National Park Service began the interpretation of park phenomena by means of museum exhibits. Ansel F. Hall, previously in charge of information for Yosemite National Park, was made park naturalist for that park in 1921 and developed a museum which was installed in a temporary building opened to the public in that year. Enlarged programs marked the year 1922, and by 1923 Glacier National Park, with the aid of Montana State University, had inau- RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL PARKS 49 gurated nature-guide service, thus becoming the third park to estab- lish the work. Here also emphasis was placed on a lecture program. In that year Director Mather, realizing the importance of the rapidly expanding educational program at Yosemite, designated Ansel F. Hall as chief naturalist to extend the field of educational develop- ment to other parks. The years 1923 and 1924 saw beginnings made at Grand Canyon, Mount Rainier, Rocky Mountain, and Sequoia National Parks. A year later Zion was added to the list of parks undertaking educational work. In 1923 Carl P. Russell was ap- pointed park naturalist in Yosemite National Park and Mr. Hall thereafter devoted himself to developments in all the parks. In order to develop a plan of operation, Director Mather ap- pointed Dr. Frank R. Oastler to investigate the educational work FIGURE 37. - A corner in the museum reading room at Mesa Verde National Park. An excellent collection of books on the archeology of southwestern United States is available for use by park visitors being carried on, and, in collaboration with Chief Naturalist Hall, to draw up a general policy. Doctor Oastler spent four and a half months in the field during the summer of 1924. An organization plan was prepared. This outline of the various educational activities defined the duties of the chief naturalist and of the park naturalists, and advocated the development of an " educational working plan" for each park which would contain a statement regarding the qualifi- cations and training of the staff, an outline of each educational activ- ity, plans of necessary buildings, necessary equipment, and required budget. This report also recommended that 'each park should fea- ture its own individual phenomena rather than try to cover the entire field of education." 50 RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL PARKS In 1924 the American Association of Museums made a careful study of the educational opportunities in the national parks and developed certain concrete plans looking toward the establishment of natural history museums in a number of the larger parks. As a result of this study the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial be- came interested in the museum program and donated funds through that association for the construction of an adequate fireproof museum building, including equipment and other important accessories, in Yosemite. Later, additional donations made further museum con- struction possible in this and other parks. FIGURE 38.-Lassen Peak, one of the few active volcanoes in North America. On the slopes of this mountain the student of geology may study many interesting features of volcanic activity In the spring of 1925, on the occasion of an inspection of the new Yosemite Museum, the Secretary of the Interior approved a plan submitted by Director Mather providing for the establishment of the headquarters of the Educational Division at Berkeley, Calif., under the direction of Chief Naturalist Ansel F. Hall. Adminis- tration of the division was handled from these headquarters from July 1, 1925, until the establishment of the Branch of Research and Education in Washington on July 1, 1930. During this period ad- ministrative plans were developed for the educational activities of each individual park in cooperation with the park superintendents and the park naturalists. At the same time a plan of administra- tion for the division as a whole was drafted. This was approved by the director on June 4, 1929, and has formed the basis of operation and administration in the field. Barry Mackintosh The National Park Service and Cultural Resources ost Department of the first NPS management policy statement, a 1918 M Interior bureaus and offices letter from Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. have some concern for cul- Lane to Director Stephen T. Mather, completely tural resources. But this con- ignored cultural resources in its prescriptions for cern is integral to the basic purpose of only one: park preservation, development, and use and for the National Park Service. In the 1916 law creat- park system expansion. ing it, the NPS was charged by Congress "to con- The author of this letter, Assistant Director After tenures as serve the scenery and the natural and historic Horace M. Albright, nevertheless had a personal NPS assistant objects and the wild life [emphasis added]" in the interest in American history and soon perceived director and places entrusted to it and to provide for their historic preservation as a major growth opportu- superintendent enjoyment "in such manner and by such means nity for the Park Service and system. The great of Yellowstone National Park, as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment natural parks were concentrated in the West, far Horace M. of future generations." from the major eastern population centers with Albright served Notwithstanding this mandate in its their heavy representation in Congress. To sub- as the second director of the organic act, the NPS saw cultural resource man- stantially increase its public and political support National Park agement as a distinctly minor responsibility in its and protect itself from being swallowed up by its Service from early years. Only one of the 14 national parks larger and better-established rival bureau, the 1929 to 1933. and seven of the 21 national monuments it Under his Agriculture Department's Forest Service, the NPS expansive lead- inherited in 1916 had been set aside for their cul- needed to broaden and diversify its domain. The ership, historical tural resources, most of which were prehistoric East, lacking spectacular scenery already in fed- parks and archeological remains. Compared to the great eral ownership, presented few opportunities for preservation became major natural parks like Yellowstone and Yosemite-the new natural parks. What it had in abundance NPS concerns. "crown jewels" of the national park system- were sites, monuments, and memorials com- Photo by George these areas were generally smaller, less spectacular, memorating the nation's past. Grant, National Park Service, and less likely to attract the public use and sup- Beginning in 1890, Congress had charged 1933. port eagerly sought by the fledgling bureau. The the War Department with acquiring and preserv- ing some of America's most important battle- fields. Under the 1906 Antiquities Act, presidents proclaimed as national monuments several his- toric forts and other features on military reserva- tions, as well as significant natural and cultural features in national forests. Albright coveted these battlefield parks and national monuments that remained under War and Agriculture department jurisdictions. After succeeding Mather as director in 1929 he supported legislation to transfer the War Department's areas-nearly all in the East- to the NPS. The transfer bill stalled, but in 1930 and 1933 Albright got Congress to establish three new historical parks in Virginia and New Jersey under NPS administration: George Washington Birthplace National Monument, where the War Department had erected and maintained a stone CRM No 4-1999 41 shaft; Colonial National Monument, including senior NPS archeologist (see McManamon and Yorktown Battlefield; and Morristown National Browning article, p. 19). Historical Park, site of Continental Army The influx of historic sites in the early encampments during the Revolution. Having 1930s required the NPS to employ historians, launched his bureau into military history, historical architects, and museum professionals to Albright was well positioned in April 1933 to research, interpret, and care for their structures lobby the newly inaugurated President Franklin and objects. President Roosevelt's receptivity to D. Roosevelt for the War Department's parks. A Depression relief programs prompted one of the recent law authorizing the president to reorganize architects, Charles E. Petersen, to propose hiring the executive branch enabled Roosevelt to give unemployed architects, photographers, and the NPS not only the War Department's areas, draftsmen to record significant examples of but the national monuments held by the Forest American architecture. The Historic American Service and the National Capital Parks, previ- Buildings Survey, an NPS program launched in ously managed by a separate office. Forty-four of 1933 and still functioning in partnership with the 52 areas transferred that August were pre- the American Institute of Architects and the dominantly historical or cultural. Such areas Library of Congress, extends far beyond park would henceforth compose a majority of NPS boundaries. The NPS began a companion pro- holdings; of the 378 present park system units, gram for historic engineering works, the Historic 224 are predominantly cultural. Thanks largely American Engineering Record, in 1969. to cultural resources, what had initially been a western park ser- vice and system became truly Interior's 150th anniversary year coincides with the 125th anniversary national. year of the Au Sable Light Station at Pictured Rocks National The Service's involvement Lakeshore, Michigan. The with cultural resources before National Park Service began the 1930s stemmed largely from restoring the historic light sta- tion in 1988. Work accom- the Antiquities Act. All its plished since then includes archeological and historical restoration of the double keep- national monuments had ers' quarters (pictured before resulted from presidential and after) and return of the third order Fresnel lens to the proclamations under that act. tower. The single keeper's The act also outlawed distur- quarters is scheduled for bance and removal of cultural restoration this year. features on federal lands without permission from the responsible The Au Sable Light Station is one of more than 65 historic government department. light stations on Interior lands. Interior and the NPS initially Photos courtesy Pictured relied on the Smithsonian Rocks National Lakeshore. Institution for archeological expertise, but in 1921 Jesse L. Nusbaum, a professional arche- ologist, became superintendent of Mesa Verde National Park. In 1927 Secretary Hubert Work ordered all Interior bureaus to consult Nusbaum on Antiquities Act permit requests and other archeological matters. Thus began the Departmental Consulting Archeologist posi- tion, held ever since by the 42 CRM No 4-1999 A view of Old bronze plaques. Secretaries have SO far designated Faithful Inn lobby some 2,300 landmarks, which are owned by fed- in Yellowstone National Park. eral, state, and local governments as well as pri- Built by the vate parties. Northern Pacific In the decades after World War II, national Railroad in 1903- energies previously subdued by the Depression 04, this grand rustic hotel is a and diverted by the war effort were unleashed on prominent exam- the American landscape. Dams and other river ple of the nation- and harbor improvements, urban renewal pro- ally significant cultural jects, airports, interstate highways, and other fed- resources in eral undertakings inundated, damaged, and parks estab- destroyed archeological sites, old buildings and lished for their natural values. neighborhoods, and other cultural properties. Photo by Laura Congress appropriated funds to and through the Soullière, NPS for archeological survey and salvage work in National Park Service, 1985. areas to be affected by dams and other river pro- jects. There was also growing sentiment that cul- tural resources needed to be identified and con- sidered in project planning. Congress responded with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. The Act charged the Secretary of the Interior-in prac- To provide firmer legal authority for the tice, the NPS-with expanding and maintaining Service's greatly expanded historic preservation a National Register of Historic Places. In addi- activities, Congress enacted the Historic Sites Act tion to the nationally significant historical parks in 1935. The Act declared "a national policy to and landmarks managed and identified by the preserve for public use historic sites, buildings NPS, the National Register was to include prop- and objects of national significance for the inspi- erties of state and local significance selected and ration and benefit of the people of the United nominated by state historic preservation officers. States." It authorized the NPS to obtain and pre- A 1971 executive order and 1980 amendments to serve records of historical and archeological prop- the Act directed federal agencies to identify and erties; conduct research on them; make a survey nominate all qualified properties under their to determine national significance; acquire and jurisdictions. For the NPS, this included proper- operate historic properties and contract with oth- ties in predominantly natural and recreational ers for their preservation and operation; "restore, parks. The Act's key protective provision, Section reconstruct, rehabilitate, preserve, and maintain" 106, requires federal agencies to consider the nationally significant properties and establish effects of their planned undertakings on proper- associated museums; place markers at nationally ties in or eligible for the Register and to allow the significant properties; and develop an educational Advisory Council on Historic Preservation to program to inform the public about them. comment on them. (Congress created the The survey to identify nationally significant Advisory Council in the Act under NPS auspices properties was seen as a tool for expanding the but made it an independent agency in 1976.) national park system with areas representing The Act also authorized federal grants for more aspects of American history. Its findings state historical surveys and plans and for preser- were at first kept confidential to avoid alarming vation work on Register properties. The 1971 property owners, but it became clear that there executive order and 1980 amendments encour- were many more nationally significant properties aged federal agencies to protect and make appro- than the NPS could ever acquire. To make them priate use of their Register properties. And federal known and encourage their preservation by oth- tax laws beginning in 1976 provided incentives ers, the NPS began referring eligible properties to for the commercial rehabilitation of Register the Secretary of the Interior for designation as buildings. Charged with overseeing and ensuring national historic landmarks in 1960. Landmarks the legal and professional adequacy of these vari- whose owners agree to preserve them receive ous activities, the NPS has developed and issued CRM No 4-1999 43 a substantial body of preservation standards, ural resources. What makes them ethnographic is guidelines, and technical information for use by their special meaning or significance to particular state and local governments, other federal agen- contemporary groups traditionally associated cies, and private parties engaged in identifying, with them. Devils Tower National Monument, evaluating, registering, documenting, and treat- for example, is a noted geologic feature but also ing historic properties. Notable among them are an ethnographic resource because of its promi- The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and nence in the origin accounts of Northern Plains Guidelines for Archeology and Historic Preservation Indians. The Atlanta neighborhood occupied by (1983) and The Secretary of the Interior's Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site Standards and Guidelines for Federal Agency has special significance to the African Americans Historic Preservation Programs Pursuant to the whose families have lived there for several genera- National Historic Preservation Act (1998). (See tions. Employing ethnographers, the NPS has .) lately made a concerted effort to identify its Museum objects, not being "places," are many ethnographic resources and manage them ineligible for the National Register unless they are with sensitivity to their traditional cultural associ- relatively large and stationary or integral compo- ations. nents of Register sites or structures. Museum Most people still associate the NPS primar- objects and collections nevertheless constitute a ily with the great natural parks-Yellowstone, cultural resource category of major responsibility Yosemite, Glacier, Grand Canyon, and the like. for the NPS. Many archeological and historic But there is now much greater awareness that properties came to the NPS with associated col- these places also contain important cultural lections, like the tools and furnishings at Grant- resources, some of national significance in their Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site in Montana. own right. Outstanding examples of early park At other parks the NPS later acquired furnishings architecture and landscape architecture, like Old for historic structures and objects for museum Faithful Inn at Yellowstone, the Ahwahnee Hotel displays, such as the Fuller firearms collection at at Yosemite, Lake McDonald Lodge at Glacier, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National and Grand Canyon Village at Grand Canyon, Military Park in Georgia. have been designated national historic landmarks With more than 36 million cultural objects and are preserved and interpreted accordingly. and natural history specimens and more than 35 Cultural resources in parks established primarily million archival and manuscript items, the NPS for their recreational values, like Cape Hatteras now has one of the largest and most valuable fed- Lighthouse at Cape Hatteras National Seashore eral museum collections. It includes such trea- and Fort Hancock at Gateway National sures as a tent used by George Washington dur- Recreation Area, have received similar recogni- ing the Revolution, flags that flew over Fort tion and attention. The Blue Ridge Parkway, Sumter at the opening of the Civil War, and the begun by the NPS as a Depression relief project, papers of Thomas A. Edison. In addition to car- today is considered one of the nation's preemi- ing for this vast and varied array, its curators, nent designed cultural landscapes. conservators, and other museum professionals Initially seen by the NPS as confined to a play important roles in the curatorial activities of few of its secondary attractions, cultural resources Interior and its other bureaus and have made are now valued as significant components of their expertise widely available beyond the nearly all national park system areas and are the Department. In 1936-38, for example, they focus of the Service's most extensive activities developed the Interior Department Museum in beyond the parks. NPS historians could once the Department's new headquarters building. provoke natural resource professionals and man- And in recent years they have published the agers with the notion that Yellowstone National Conserve 0 Gram series containing technical Park in toto-the world's first area so desig- information on collection preservation for both nated-is a cultural resource, worthy of national park and outside museum managers. historic landmark status. Few today would dis- Ethnographic resources are yet another cul- agree. tural resource category. All other types of cultural resources-archeological and historic sites, struc- Barry Mackintosh is the NPS Bureau Historian in tures, objects, districts, landscapes-may be Washington, DC. ethnographic resources, as may intrinsically nat- 44 CRM No 4-1999 National Park Service History: Philanthropy and the National Parks Page 1 of 4 History Links to the Past Search National Park Service Home National Park Service History Online Books Barry Mackintosh 1998 Historical Philanthropy and the National Parks Themes Private philanthropy has played a major role in advancing the national parks and the National Park Service. In the years before Congress routinely Maritime appropriated funds for park lands, and later when land acquisition needs History exceeded and continue to exceed appropriations, private donations were and are responsible for substantial additions to the national park system. Other donations have contributed significantly to park planning, development, Research management, and interpretation. and Education The park system benefited from private contributions even before Congress created the National Park Service on August 25, 1916. In 1907 Mr. and Mrs. William Kent donated what became Muir Woods National Monument, California; Oral and in June 1916 a group formed by George B. Dorr, Charles W. Eliot, and History others gave the land for Sieur de Monts National Monument in Maine, the forerunner of Acadia National Park. These were the first of many parks created or enlarged by philanthropy. Before and after he became the first director of the National Park Service in 1917, Stephen T. Mather contributed much from his personal fortune to support the parks and their administration. In 1915 he and others bought the privately owned Tioga Road for Yosemite National Park for $15,500. The next year he got several western railroads to join him in contributing $48,000 to publish the National Parks Portfolio, which publicized the parks and helped persuade Congress to create the National Park Service. Among his later personal expenditures, Mather provided $25,000 in 1920 to build the Rangers Club at Yosemite. The first park museums resulted largely from philanthropy. A museum at Mesa Verde National Park built with contributions from Stella Leviston of San Francisco and John D. Rockefeller, Jr., opened in 1925, as did a museum at Yosemite funded by the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial. In 1926 the Rockefeller Memorial underwrote the cost of the Yavapai Observation Station- Museum at Grand Canyon National Park, and in 1928 it contributed $118,000 for four focal-point museums in Yellowstone National Park. Mr. and Mrs. B.F. Loomis gave the Loomis Memorial Museum and forty acres of land to Lassen for http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/philanthropy.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: Philanthropy and the National Parks Page 2 of 4 vuluallic park museums until it funded construction of the Sinnot Memorial Observation Station-Museum at Crater Lake National Park in 1930; even then the Carnegie Foundation paid for the museum's exhibits and equipment. The contributions of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and his son Laurance S. Rockefeller to expand the national park system are especially remarkable. They gave more than $3 million for land and park roads at Acadia, more than $2 million to enlarge and improve Grand Teton National Park, more than $5 million for land to establish Great Smoky Mountains National Park, more than $2 million for the land comprising Virgin Islands National Park, more than $1.6 million to expand Yosemite, and lesser amounts for lands at Big Bend, Glacier, Grand Canyon, Haleakala, Lassen Volcanic, Olympic, Rocky Mountain, and Shenandoah national parks; Antietam, Big Hole, and Fort Donelson national battlefields; Capulin Volcano and George Washington Birthplace national monuments; Colonial National Historical Park; Ford's Theatre National Historic Site; and the Blue Ridge Parkway. In 1993 Laurance and his wife, Mary, gave their historic Vermont estate valued at $21.4 million with a $7.5 million endowment to establish Marsh-Billings National Historical Park. The Rockefellers continued to make major contributions to other National Park Service activities as well. In 1986, for example, Laurance and his Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc., helped launch the Horace M. Albright-Conrad L. Wirth Employee Development Fund, which makes grants to park service employees enabling them to further their personal and professional growth. And in 1991 they helped finance the service's 75th anniversary symposium at Vail, Colorado, which produced "The Vail Agenda" for national parks in the 21st century. After the Rockefellers, the Mellon family has contributed most generously to the growth of the park system. Between 1947 and 1971, family foundations gave nearly $7 million to fund seacoast and Great Lakes shoreline surveys leading to the creation of several national seashores and lakeshores, to purchase much of the land for Cape Hatteras and Cumberland Island national seashores, and to enable federal acquisition of Hampton National Historic Site. Other Mellon gifts contributed to the preservation of Redwood and Rocky Mountain national parks. In 1990 the Richard King Mellon Foundation donated another $10.5 million for lands at Antietam, Fredericksburg, Gettysburg, and Petersburg battlefields; Pecos National Historical Park; and Shenandoah National Park. Mellon foundations have also given generously to other National Park Service activities, from the landscaping of Lafayette Park fronting the White House to the Vail symposium. Many other persons and groups have donated or funded single parks or park additions. There is room here for only a few examples illustrating the range of such gifts. On behalf of Adams family descendants, the Adams Memorial Society donated Adams National Historic Site. The Fort Frederica Association purchased additional land for Fort Frederica National Monument. Lloyd W. Smith donated Jockey Hollow, a major component of Morristown National Historical Park. The Roosevelt Memorial Association donated Theodore Roosevelt Island. Margaret Louise Van Alen, Frederick W. Vanderbilt's niece, donated Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site. And Catherine Filene Shouse donated the land and theater for Wolf Trap Farm Park for the Performing Arts. Numerous park facilities and improvements beyond those already mentioned have been made possible by private philanthropy. Again, just a few examples must serve. Louise du Pont Crowninshield contributed historic furnishings for houses at George Washington Birthplace National Monument and Salem Maritime National Historic Site. Claud E. Fuller gave a major firearms collection for exhibit at Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. The http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/philanthropy.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: Classic National Park Service Histories Page 1 of 2 History Links to the Past Search National Park Service Home National Park Service History Franciscan Church at Tumacacori National Historical Park Online Books Classic National Park Service Publications Historical A Brief History of the National Park Service (1940) Themes Glimpses of Historic Areas East of the Mississippi River (1937) Glimpses of Our National Monuments (1930) Glimpses of Our National Parks (1941) Maritime The National Parks Portfolio (1931) History The National Park Story in Pictures (1957) The National Park Wilderness (1957) Research History and Prehistory in the National Park System and the National Historic Landmarks Program and Proceedings Of The First Park Naturalists' Training Conference Education (1929) The Regional Review (1938-1941) Oral Recreational Use of Land in the United States (1938) History Research and Education in the National Parks (1932) Anthropological Papers series Archeological Research series Fauna series Field Division of Education series Historical Handbook series Interpretive series Natural History Handbook series Popular Study series Scientific Monograph series Source Book series Transactions and Proceedings series Urban Ecology series Historian's Directory Ask a Question/Contact hitp://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/classics.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: Evolution of the Conservation Movement Page 1 of 2 History Links to the Past Search National Park Service Home National Park Service History Online Books Historical Themes At 1915 dedication of Rocky Mountain National Park. (I to r): Stephen T. Mather, Robert Sterling Yard, Acting Superintendent Trowbridge, First Park Service Photographer Herford T. Cowling, Maritime and Horace M. Albright. National Park Service Historic Photograph Collection History The Evolution of the Conservation Movement in Research the United States Before the Creation of the and National Park Service Education Selected Events in the Development of the American Oral Conservation Movement, 1847-1920 History The Man and Nature; or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action by George P. Marsh (1864) The Yosemite and the Mariposa Grove: A Preliminary Report by Frederick Law Olmstead (1865) The Yellowstone National Park by Hiram Martin Chittenden (1895) The Writings of John Muir The Mountains of California by John Muir (1894) Our National Parks by John Muir (1901) Report of the Public Lands Commission (1905) Proceedings of a Conference of Governors (1908) Addresses and proceedings of the first National Conservation Congress held at Seattle, Washington, August 26-28, 1909. The Fight For Conservation by Gifford Pinchot (1910) My First Summer in the Sierra by John Muir (1911) The Yosemite by John Muir (1912) Our Vanishing Wildlife: Its Extermination and Preservation (1913) National Park Service. Hearing before the Committee on the Public Lands, House of Representatives (1916) http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/conservation.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: Evolution of the Conservation Movement Page 2 of 2 Proceedings of the National Park Conference, vol. 4 (1917) The Letters of Franklin K. Lane, Personal and Political Frederick Law Olmstead National Historic Site John Muir National Historic Site Sagamore Hill National Historic Site (Theodore Roosevelt) Historian's Directory Ask a Question/Contact Home NPS History Online Books | Historical Themes Maritime I Research and Education I Oral History Site Map Privacy & Disclaimer Last Modified: EDT ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/conservation.htm 12/23/2003 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 1 of 6 History Links to the Past Search National Park Service Home National Park Service History Online Books Historical Themes Maritime Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site History Research and Philosophical Underpinnings Education of the National Park Idea Oral Dwight T. Pitcaithley Chief Historian History National Park Service Copyright © 2001 by the Association of National Park Rangers. All rights reserved. This article is republished from Ranger, Fall 2001, with permission from the Association of National Park Rangers. Wallace Stegner, that insightful observer of the American West, liked to remark that the idea of national parks was the best idea we ever had. He believed that the concept of national parks was inevitable "as soon as Americans learned to confront the wild continent not with fear and cupidity but with delight, wonder, and awe." Inevitable or not, the idea gradually took form from multiple threads. The artist George Catlin first articulated the idea of large western national parks in 1832, the same year Congress set aside the Hot Springs Reservation in central Arkansas, now known as Hot Springs National Park. On a trip to the Dakotas Catlin worried about the impact of America's westward expansion on Indian civilization, wildlife and wilderness. They might be preserved, he wrote, "by some great protecting policy of government in a magnificent park A nation's park, containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!" http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 2 of 6 Artist George Catlin first articulated the idea of large western national parks in 1832 Lawyer, writer and philosopher Joseph Sax has given us perhaps the most comprehensive and articulate assessment of the growth of the idea in an article titled, "America's National Parks: Their Principles, Purposes and Prospects." One thread, according to Sax, was the growing belief, by the midpoint of the 19th century, that spectacular natural areas could be quickly and profoundly despoiled. Beginning in 1806, developers bought land adjacent to Niagara Falls for industrial and tourism purposes. By 1860, the famous falls were so congested with haphazard development that the area had become the prime example of how a scenic wonder should not be developed. The earliest and clearest articulation of a philosophy for the use and enjoyment of public pleasuring grounds came several decades after Catlin, but long before President Woodrow Wilson established the National Park Service in 1916. In 1864 Abraham Lincoln authorized the transfer of the Yosemite Valley to the state of California for "public use, resort and recreation." Frederick Law Photo courtesy of Association of National Park Rangers, Olmsted was appointed Copyright © 2001. chairman of the board of commissioners established to oversee the administration of the park, and he formulated a theory of use for this new type of land. The national park idea took root in an 1865 report that presented his views on how Yosemite should be developed. Olmsted, the preeminent landscape architect of the 19th century, presented more than a theory of use, he articulated a philosophy of leisure based on nature's regenerative powers for an urbanizing society. He believed, this builder of Central Park in New York City and countless other urban parks throughout the country, that the essence of park land should be in establishing a contrast to the pace of the modern world. Anchoring his thinking at the conclusion of the Civil War and amid the burgeoning Industrial Revolution, Olmsted envisioned a need for ordinary citizens to maintain perspective in their daily lives by being exposed to, and encouraged to contemplate, the natural rhythms of the natural world. Olmsted wrote during a period in American history when American society was eager to find ways to measure up to European society. Before the 1860s and 1870s, North America had nothing to compare to the Swiss Alps or the antiquities of Rome or the canals and museums of Venice. Americans who took http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 3 of 6 the "Grand Tour" to experience the sights and culture of Europe did so because there was no equivalent in the United States. (It would be several decades before the wonders of Mesa Verde or Chaco Canyon would be revealed to the American public.) The grandeur and spectacle of the Yosemite Valley and the sequoia trees of the Mariposa Grove, however, were something else. Therein was scenery that could compare favorably with the best Europe had to offer. Olmsted was not an advocate of wilderness, rather he thought it most appropriate that parks have restaurants and hotels and carriage paths and trails so that a leisurely appreciation of nature was possible. How else could men and women of leisure enjoy the sights and scenery of these grand places? These conveniences, however, should not interfere, visually or audibly, with the process of appreciation. This policy of recreation, in the words of Joseph Sax, "of testing the importance of one's daily tasks against some permanent standard of value," was at the heart of Olmsted's philosophy. It was contrast Olmsted was after, contrast of the rhythm and pace of a daily existence with the rhythm of the natural world. "We want a ground," he wrote, "to which people may easily go after their day's work is done we want the greatest possible contrast with the restraining and confining conditions of the town we want tranquility and rest to the mind. With this thought in mind, Olmsted constructed many of the nations most significant urban parks. It was not a stretch, then, for Olmsted to adopt the same philosophy of contrast for Yosemite. The Mariposa Grove was not as accessible to the working class at the end of the day, but the park did carry the concept of contrast to its logical conclusion. Later, the founding fathers of the NPS made clean distinctions between the conservation of "scenery and natural and historic objects" and the "enjoyment of the same." Although pleasure and enjoyment were seen as byproducts of recreational use of parks, enjoyment was also to be derived through education. "The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks," Secretary Lane wrote to Stephen T. Mather in 1918, "should be encouraged in every practicable way." The connections between parks and learning, formal and informal, constitute another philosophical thread, and were recognized early as an important element in the purpose of parks. Olmsted, as noted, wrote from the vantage point of mid-19th century America near the end of the American Civil War, at the same time, interestingly enough, as George Perkins Marsh was developing his pioneering work on conservation, Man and Nature. The country was different then. The nation's population stood at a mere 31 million. Most of the West, with the notable exception of parts of California, Colorado, Nevada and New Mexico, was still occupied only by http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 4 of 6 scattered Indian peoples. By the time Congress established the NPS in 1916 the population had multiplied threefold, and by 1960 it had grown almost tenfold to 180 million! The spatial relationship between towns and cities and uninhabited sections of the country was different 100 years after Olmsted's report on the Mariposa Grove. Wild places were shrinking and becoming more precious. The sense of place with which Americans viewed Yosemite and Yellowstone was different. The manner with which Americans viewed their environment had also changed. The change was reflected in a flurry of legislation that affected the management of the National Park System as much as it recognized this country's commitment to environmental health. By the 1960s, population and development pressures throughout the country resulted in the passage of the Wilderness Act (1964), National Historic Preservation Act (1966), Clean Air Act (1967), Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968), National Environmental Policy Act (1969), and the Endangered Species Act in 1973. The country had changed and so would the NPS as it implemented these and other laws, and recognized the global implications of its actions. Another factor affecting the philosophical framework of the Service present from the beginning, but expanded and clarified over time was the emphasis placed on the preservation of cultural resources. Even before the establishment of the NPS, Congress and the President (through the authority of the 1906 Antiquities Act) began to define a national policy of historic preservation as they recognized the nationally significant values of Casa Grande, Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, Gran Quivira, and Sitka among others. Subsequent legislation such as the 1935 Historic Sites Act, the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, and Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 further enhanced the Service's philosophical (and legal) underpinnings in the area currently identified as heritage preservation. (Additional philosophical expansions resulted from the creation of numerous preservation and technical assistance programs Congress authorized over time in the areas of historic preservation, recreation, and open space conservation.) The philosophy of national park management is now more expansive, and certainly more complex, than it was in either 1865 or 1916, but it continues to revolve around the protection and preservation of cultural and natural resources. While it has not been entirely consistent on this point through the decades, the Service is mindful of its responsibility to manage resources with care and thoughtfulness sufficient to leave them unimpaired for future generations. That attentiveness to preservation and its co-mandate in the 1916 Organic Act, "enjoyment," has led the Service to revisit continuously the philosophy of managing national parks, and to ensure a clear understanding of the Service's legislative mandates, The latest version of the Management http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 5 of 6 Policies (2001) represents the current evolution of that thinking and should be required reading for all interested in understanding the practical implications of the philosophical structure that guides the management of parks. As the Policies have tried to make clear, the philosophy of park management stems not only from key aspects of the Service's history - Olmsted's thinking, Yellowstone's founding, Stephen T. Mather's passion - but from the subsequent laws and proclamations passed by Congress and issued by presidents. The governing philosophy of the NPS is more complex these days because the society in which it operates is more complex. The population of the United States now stands at 280 million, almost 10 times that when Olmsted articulated his philosophy of leisure during the 1860s. And yet, the Service still provides a sense of contrast, of wonder, of awe, at cultural and natural sites alike. Somewhere between the prose of Congress and the poetry of Stegner lies the philosophical soul of the National Park Service. Congress and Wallace Stegner, not surprisingly, had different ways of capturing the values of the Service and System. In 1970, and again in 1978, Congress summed up its 100-year history of setting aside special places by stating that the parks that comprise the National Park System "are united through their interrelated purposes and resources into one national park system as cumulative expressions of a single national heritage; that, individually and collectively, these areas derive increased national dignity and recognition of their superlative environmental quality through their inclusion jointly with each other in one national park system preserved and managed for the benefit and inspiration of all the people of the United States," and that all management activities "shall be conducted in light of the high public value and integrity of the National Park System and shall not be exercised in derogation of the values and purposes for which these various areas have been established." A decade earlier, Stegner mused with his poet's heart on the preservation of wild space: We need wilderness preserved because it was the challenge against which our character as a people was formed. The reminder and the reassurance that it is still there is good for our spiritual health even if we never once in ten years set foot in it. It is good for us when we are young, because of the incomparable sanity it can bring briefly, as vacation and rest, into our insane lives. It is important to us when we are old simply because it is there - important, that is, simply as idea We simply need that wild country available to us, even if we never do more than drive to its edge and look in. For it can be a means of reassuring ourselves of our sanity as creatures, a part of the geography of hope. Somewhere between the prose of Congress and the poetry of Stegner lies the philosophical soul of the National Park Service. Suggested readings http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 National Park Service History: Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Idea Page 6 of 6 Wallace Stegner, "The Best Idea We Ever Had," in Marking the Sparrow's Fall: The Making of the American West. Edited by Page Stegner. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1998, p. 137. Joseph L. Sax, "America's National Parks: Their Principles, Purposes, and Prospects," in Natural History (October 1976), pp. 59-87. Dwight T. Pitcaithley, "A Dignified Exploitation: The Growth of Tourism in the National Parks," in Seeing and Being Seen: Tourism in the American West, edited by David M. Wrobel and Patrick T. Long. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. The growth of the National Park System is detailed in Barry Mackintosh, "The National Parks: Shaping the System." The most current edition of Shaping the System is found only on the Web. Dwight T. Pitcaithley is the chief historian of the National Park Service. He began his NPS career as a seasonal laborer during the summer of 1963. In 1976 he was hired as a research historian in the Southwest Regional Office in Santa Fe and later became the regional historian in the Boston regional office. He served as chief of cultural resources in the National Capital Region before becoming chief historian in 1995. return to Thinking About National Park Service History page Historian's Directory Ask a Question/Contact Home NPS History Online Books Historical Themes Maritime | Research and Education | Oral History Site Map Privacy & Disclaimer Page updated 01/28/2004 ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisps/NPSThinking/underpinnings.htm 5/4/2004 Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective Page 1 of 4 National Park Service INTERPRETATION IN THE NATIONAL PARK Home SERVICE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by Barry Mackintosh Chapter 1 --Origins The Park Service Assumes Responsibility --Before NPS Doubtless influenced by the publicity campaign, Congress passed the National Park Service bill in August 1916, and the new bureau began operating the following year with Mather as director and Horace M. --The Park Service Albright as his assistant. Heavy publicity to promote and aid park Assumes Responsibility tourism--and thereby to stimulate increased Park Service appropriations- -continued under Yard, who became chief of the Service's "educational --Interpretation division" (a nonofficial capacity in which Mather continued to pay his Institutionalized salary). Yard turned out a second edition of The National Parks Portfolio in 1917 with added sections on Hot Springs and the lesser parks and monuments, omitted from the original publication. The Service also Chapter 2 disseminated more than 128,000 park circulars, 83,000 automobile guide maps, and 117,000 pamphlets titled "glimpses of our national parks" that year and circulated 348,000 feet of motion picture film to schools, --Branching Into History churches, and other organizations.[8] --The Importance of A letter from Secretary Lane to Director Mather in May 1918--drafted by Historical Interpretation Horace Albright--constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement. It reiterated the concept of the parks as educational media: --Inagurating the Program The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable -Historical Challenges way. University and high-school classes in science will find special facilities for their vacation period studies. Museums containing specimens of wild flowers, shrubs, and trees Chapter 3 and mounted animals, birds, and fish native to the parks, and other exhibits of this character, will be established as --New Directions authorized. [9] --Audiovisual Despite this high-level expression of support, the idea of the Park Service being in the education business--beyond dispensing basic tourist Innovations information-was not widely applauded. Yard later recalled the obstacles he faced during the bureau's first years: --Museums, Visitor Centers, and the New Educational promotion wasn't much of a success at first. Look No one in Washington took any interest in it except Mr. Mather, spasmodically; Congressmen smiled over it; and --Living History with a very few exceptions the concessioners opposed it. Somebody politically influential on the Pacific Coast -Environmental slammed the whole idea of education in national parks by Interpretation letter to his Senator who called up Secretary Lane about it, and Lane phoned down to Mather that he'd better go slow --Women in on that unpopular kind of stuff. Thus the cause passed Interpretation under a heavy cloud just as things were beginning to look hopeful. But I still kept my title, and hammered away as inconspicuously as possible. [10] --Other Agendas With Congress reluctant to support park educational activities, outside sponsorship would play a large role during the first decade of Park Chapter 4 Service operation. Charles D. Wolcott, secretary of the Smithsonian, http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh3/origins_nps_assumes_respon... 2/5/2010 Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective Page 2 of 4 organized a National Parks Educational Committee in 1918. With --Interpreting Mather's help, it spawned the National Parks Association in May 1919. Interpretation Yard moved over to become executive secretary of the association, among whose purposes were "to interpret the natural sciences which are illustrated in the scenic features, flora and fauna of the national parks and monuments, and to circulate popular information concerning them in Chapter 5 text and picture," and "to encourage the popular study of the history, exploration, tradition, and folk lore of the national parks and --Interpretation In Crisis monuments." [11] In the parks themselves, most educational or interpretive programs were Appendices undertaken or aided by outside parties. In 1917 Rocky Mountain National Park examined and licensed young women as nature guides; the women --Memo were employed by local hotels. Mesa Verde National Park that year rehabilitated a ranger station for museum purposes and in 1918 installed -Photographs five cases of excavated artifacts and photo enlargements of the park's ruins. There J. Walter Fewkes, a Smithsonian archeologist, lectured on his work in the park. The University of California extension division inaugurated a lecture series in memory of Professor Joseph LeConte at Endnotes Yosemite in 1919 and continued it through 1923. Speakers the first summer included Professor Willis L. Jepson of the university on botany; --Origins William Frederic Bade, John Muir's literary executor, on Muir; Professor A.L. Kroeber of the university on local Indians; and Francois Emile Matthes of the U.S. Geological Survey on geology. Matthes stayed in the --Branching Into History park, giving additional talks in the public camps and at Sierra Club campfires.[12] --New Directions Notwithstanding precedents elsewhere, the first reasonably --Interpreting comprehensive interpretive programs directed by the Park Service Interpretation blossomed at both Yosemite and Yellowstone in 1920. Visiting Fallen Leaf Lake in the Tahoe region the year before, Mather had been -Interpretation in Crisis impressed with a program of nature guiding and evening lectures conducted by Professor Loye Holmes Miller of the University of California at Los Angeles and Dr. Harold C. Bryant, educational director of the California Fish and Game Commission. Mather persuaded Miller and Bryant to transfer their activities to Yosemite the following summer. There Bryant organized and directed the Yosemite Free Nature Guide Service. The program included daily guided hikes, evening campfire talks, and lectures at Camp Curry illustrated by motion pictures. "The response has been so great that we are sure there will be sufficient demand not only to continue the work in Yosemite National Park but to extend it to other parks," Bryant reported of the first season's activity.[13 At Yellowstone, Superintendent Horace M. Albright made Ranger Milton P. Skinner the Service's first officially designated park naturalist. Employed earlier by the Yellowstone Park Association, Skinner had long studied the park's natural features and advocated an educational service. With two seasonal rangers hired by Albright for interpretation, he now conducted field trips, gave lectures, and prepared natural history bulletins for posting in the park.[ Yosemite and Yellowstone simultaneously advanced in museum development. Ranger Ansel F. Hall organized the Yosemite Museum Association in 1920 to plan and raise funds for a new park museum. The next year he began converting the former studio of artist Chris Jorgensen to museum use. Containing six rooms designated for history, ethnology, geology, natural history, botany, and trees, it featured a scale model of Yosemite galley built by Hall and mounted birds and mammals prepared by Chief Ranger Forest S. Townsley. The museum opened in June 1922. Hilton Skinner started Yellowstone's park museum in 1920 in a former bachelor officers' quarters at Mammoth Hot Springs (the http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh3/origins_nps_assumes_respon... 2/5/2010 Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective Page 3 of 4 building still functions as a museum there). His exhibits included mammal specimens prepared by Chief Ranger Sam T. Woodring. [15] Director Mather's 1920 annual report called for "the early establishment of adequate museums in every one of our parks" for exhibiting regional flora, fauna, and minerals. [16] Because appropriated funds for park museums and related programs were not forthcoming, it became customary to seek outside support. The case of Yosemite exemplifies this pattern. Ansel Hall met Chauncey J. Hamlin, vice president and later president of the American Association of Museums, in 1921 and impressed him with the need for a better park museum. Hamlin established and chaired the AAM Committee on Museums in National Parks (later the Committee on Outdoor Education), which included such long-time park supporters as Hermon C. Bumpus, John C. Merriam, and Clark Wissler. The committee sought "establishment of small natural-history museums in a number of the larger parks." Through its efforts, the AAM obtained a $70,500 grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1924 to build and equip a permanent Yosemite museum. Hall, who had become chief naturalist of the National Park Service the year before, was appointed executive agent of the AAM for the new museum (temporarily leaving the Park Service payroll). Carl P. Russell, Hall's successor as park naturalist, simultaneously replaced the Yosemite Museum Association with the Yosemite Natural History Association, broadened to promote a range of related programs. In addition to supporting development of the museum, it would gather and disseminate information on the park's natural and human history, contribute to the educational activities of the Yosemite Nature Guide Service, promote scientific investigation, maintain a library, study and preserve the customs and legends of the remaining Indians of the region, and publish Yosemite Nature Notes in cooperation with the Park Service. [17] Hermon C. Bumpus, who had been first director of the American Museum of Natural History in New York, had strong ideas about park museums and took virtual command of the Yosemite project. In addition to the museum planned for Yosemite Valley, he promoted a "focal point" lookout facility at Glacier Point as best representing what park museums should be about: The controlling fact governing the development of educational work in the national parks is that within these reservations multitudes are brought directly in contact with striking examples of Nature's handicraft. To lead these people away from direct contact with Nature is contrary to the spirit of the enterprise. The real museum is outside the walls of the building and the purpose of the museum work is to render the out-of-doors intelligible. It is out of this conception that a smaller specialized museum, the trailside museum, takes its origin. [18] Architect Herbert Maier, who would have a long career in Park Service construction and management, designed both structures. The Glacier Point lookout was completed in 1925. The Yosemite Valley museum was finished in 1926 and served as park interpretive headquarters until 1968, when it was incorporated in an expanded visitor center. The AAM also played an active role in museum development at Grand Canyon and Yellowstone national parks during the 1920s. Another grant http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh3/origins_nps_assumes_respon...2/5/2010 Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective Page 4 of 4 from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1926 funded the observation station and museum overlooking the Grand Canyon at Yavapai Point. Ansel Hall continued in AAM employ on the project, and John C. Merriam-- formerly professor of paleontology at Berkeley, later head of the Carnegie Institution of Washington-- spearheaded it for the park museum committee. Herbert Maier again drew the plans. When the Rockefeller money ran out, Merriam personally paid for one of the large windows and got a $3,000 grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York to finish the work. The structure opened in 1930. [19] Yellowstone was beneficiary of a $112,000 grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial for museum development in 1928. Over the objections of Park Naturalist Dorr G. Yeager, Hermon Bumpus decided upon small "focal point" museums at Old Faithful, Madison Junction, and Norris Geyser Basin rather than a single, major one. These structures, one at Fishing Bridge, and a "trailside shrine" exhibit at Obsidian Cliff were completed to Herbert Maier's designs between 1928 and 1931. [20] In the fall of 1928 Bumpus arranged an extensive tour of American museums for Yosemite's Carl Russell, seeking to develop him as a museum professional within the Park Service. The next year Russell was promoted to a new position, of field naturalist specializing in exhibit planning and preparation for the parks. In this capacity, assisted by Dorr Yeager, Russell took charge of the exhibits and curation for the new Yellowstone museums. Among the interpretive devices he inherited were two portable working models of geysers, erupting to a height of 2-1/2 feet each minute, built for Yellowstone by the Service's Education Division in 1926.[21] Mesa Verde and Lassen Volcanic national parks were among other areas benefiting from private philanthropy in museum development during the 1920s. Superintendent and Mrs. Jesse L. Nusbaum of Mesa Verde persuaded Stella H. Leviston of San Francisco and John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to contribute $5,000 each for a new museum there, built between 1923 and 1925. In 1929 the Loomis Memorial Museum, previously built by the Loomis family on adjacent land, was donated to Lassen, Not until 1930 did federal money fund a park museum: the Sinnott Memorial, a stone observation station on the edge of Crater Lake, honoring the late Rep. Nicholas J. Sinnott of Oregon. Even then, the Carnegie Foundation paid for its exhibits and equipment. An information station-museum near Rocky Mountain National Park headquarters was jointly funded in this manner the following year. [22] History Links to the Past | National Park Service I Search Contact Top Last Modified: July 9, 2000 09:35:00 pm PST http://www.cr.nps.gov/ ParkNet National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh3/origins_nps_assumes_respon... 2/5/2010 Interpreting Our Heritage PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES FOR VISITOR SERVICES IN PARKS, MUSEUMS, AND HISTORIC PLACES by FREEMAN TILDEN 1957 Chapel Hill THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PRESS TEACHERS GALLED LIBRARY National 'k Service History: Site Map P 1 of 9 History Links to the Past Search National Park Service Home Site Map National Park Service History National Park Service History Online Books Thinking About National Park National Park Service Historian's Service History Web Page Historical Themes Famous Quotes about the National Parks A Historian's Experience in the National Park Maritime Future of the NPS History Program Service A Historian's Experience in the National Park Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park History Service Idea Humanities Report Philosophical Underpinnings of the National Park Research and Idea Education Public Use of the National Park System 1872- Records of the National Park 2000 Service and Related Agencies in Themes & Concepts the National Archives Thoughts on the Preservation of Place Guide to Federal Records in the National History of the National Park Archvies Service Records of the National Park Service Records of the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service Records of the Office of Public Buildings and Administrative History Guide Public Parks of the National Capitol Brief History of the National Park Service Records of the Civilian Conservation Corps Environmental History: The View at the Grand Records of the Historic American Buildings Canyon Survey National Parks and Education: The First Twenty (HABS)/American Engineering Record (HAER) Years Division National Park System Timeline http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nationa k Service History: Site Map F 2 of 9 National Monument Proclamations under the Antiquities Act Useful Books Former National Park System Units: An Analysis Directors of the National Park Service Chief Historians of the National Park Service Historic Listings of National Park Service National Parks and National Park Service Officials Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850- 1920 National Parks: The American Experience Glimpses of our National Monuments (1930) Trains of Discovery Philanthropy and the National Parks Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness Public History in the Parks: History and the Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal National Park Service and the Making of the National Parks Research and Education in the National Parks Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Selected Readings Years Theodore Roosevelt and the National Park Death, Daring and Disaster: Search and Rescue in the National Parks System Preserving Nature in the National Parks Wilderness by Design: Landscape Architecture and the National Park Service National Park Service Archives Building the National Parks: Historic Landscape and Research Design and Construction Searching for Yellowstone: Ecology and Wonder in the Last Wilderness Take Down Flag & Feed Horses NPS Historic Photograph Collection Mapping the National Parks History, Historic Preservation and Cultural National Park Service Maps Resources Management National Park Service History Collection Inventories Value of Archives to National Park Service Architects to the Nation Historians Nineteenth-Century Lights: Historic Images of American Lighthouses Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America Back of the Big House : The Architecture of Plantation Slavery The Meaning of Slavery in the North Laurance S. 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Lee The United States Park Police: A History Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of Visitor Fees in the National Park System: A World War II Japanese American Relocation Legislative and Administrative History Sites The Department of Everything Else Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California Park Science and Natural Hard Drive to the Klondike: Promoting Seattle Resources Management During The Gold Rush LBJ's Texas White House "Our Heart's Home" Interpreting Women's History in the National Park Service Fauna of the National Parks of the United Interpretation at Civil War Sites States: - A Preliminary Survey of Faunal Relationships Japanese-American Internment Sites in the National Parks Preservation - Wildlife Management in the National Parks Man in Space: A Study of Alternatives - Birds and Mammals of Mount McKinley Rally on the High Ground: The National Park National Park Service Symposium on the Civil War - Ecology of the Coyote in the Yellowstone Researching and Interpreting the Underground http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nationa k Service History: Site Map 4 of 9 - 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1992 Devil Tower History In the Land of Frozen Fires: A History of Architecture in the Parks Occupation in El Malpais Country Astronomy and Astrophysics Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument: An Earliest Americans of the Eastern United States Administrative History Theme Study Fort Union National Monument: Administrative Earliest Americans Theme Study History Man in Space: Parts 1 and 2 All Aboard: The Role of the Railroads in Yellowstone and Yosemite National Parks Racial Desegregation in Public Education in the United States Ranchers to Rangers: An Administrative History http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nationa k Service History: Site Map 5 of 9 of Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site Underground Railroad Resources in the United Guadalupe Mountains National Park: An States Theme Study The U.S. Constitution Administrative History Navajo National Monument: Place and Its Warships Associated with World War II in the Pacific People The Story of Mesa Verde National Park Cultures at a Crossroads: An Administrative History of Pipe Spring National Monument Dunes and Dreams: A History of White Sands National Monument Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment Midwest Region Amidst Ancient Monuments: The Administrative History of Mound City Group National Monument / Hopewell Culture National Historic Park, Ohio A Nationalized Lakeshore: The Creation and Administration of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore The Pictured Rocks: An Administrative History of Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve-Legislative History, 1920-1996 Voyageurs National Park Special History: The Environment and the Fur Trade Experience in Voyageurs National Park, 1730-1870 William Howard Taft National Historic Site Administrative History National Capitol Region Battling for Manassas: The Fifty Year Preservation Struggle at Manassas National Battlefield Park Northeast Region Celebrating the Immigrant: An Administrative History of the Statue of Liberty National Monument 1952 - 1982 Valley Forge: Making and Remaking a National Symbol Pacific West Region http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nationa rk Service History: Site Map 6 of 9 Big Hole National Battlefield: Administrative History Contested Terrain: An Administrative History of the North Cascades Complex Crater Lake National Park: Administrative History Crater Lake National Park History Craters of the Moon National Monument Administrative History Craters of the Moon National Monument History Ebey's Landing: Administrative History Fort Clatsop National Memorial Fort Clatsop National Memorial: History Area Study Fort Vancouver: Administrative History Golden Gate National Recreation Area: Seacoast Fortifications Preservation Manual Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site: An Administrative History Hard Drive to the Klondike: Promoting Seattle During the Gold Rush North Cascades Historic Resource Study John Day Fossil Beds National Monument: Floating in the Stream of Time - An Administrative History Mount Rainier National Park: An Administrative History Nez Perce Summer, 1877: The U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis Nez Perce National Historic Park: An Administrative History USS Arizona: Submerged Cultural Resources Study Whitman Mission National Historic Site: Administrative History Southeast Region Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Moores Creek National Battlefield: Administrative History Historical Themes in America http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nation rk Service History: Site Map 7 of 9 Agriculture Health/Medicine Architecture Immigration Art Industry Commemoration Intellectual Philosophy Commerce Labor Communications Landscape Architecture Community Literature Economics Maritime Education Military Entertainment/Performing Arts Military: Civil War Environmental Conservation: Historic Military: Colonial Wars Conservation Military: Korean War Environmental Conservation: Natural Military: Mexican War Conservation Military: Military-Indian Conflicts Ethnic Heritage: African American Military: Revolutionary War Ethnic Heritage: Alaska Native Military: Vietnam War Ethnic Heritage: American Indian Military: War of 1812 Ethnic Heritage: Asian American Military: World War II Ethnic Heritage: European Recreation Ethnic Heritage: Hispanic Religion Ethnic Heritage: Pacific Islander Science Exploration Settlement/Migration Government Social and Humanitarian Movements Government: Constitution Technology and Engineering Government: Foreign Relations Tourism Government: Law Transportation Government: Politics Women Government: Presidents Themes & Concepts Humanities Report Maritime History Visit Maritime History and Preservation NPS Maritime Parks Landmarks Historic Ships Education Tools Lighthouses Lighthouse Heritage Life-Saving Stations Ship Links Grants News http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 Nation rk Service History: Site Map 8 of 9 Publications About Research and Education National Park Service Teaching National Park Service Research Materials and Diversity Resources Research in the National Parks (Archeology) National Parks and Education: The First Twenty Southeast Utah Group Research Years Monument Research and Preservation Program Step into the Adventure Time Machine Park Science Homepage Researching and Interpreting the Underground NCPTT's Museum Lighting Research Railroad Spanish Colonial Research Center National Underground Railroad Network to Research in the Parks Freedom Researching Civil War Ancestors Diversity in the National Park Service National Park Service Research Permit and Teacher Training and Workshops Reporting System Teacher Workshops in Your National Parks Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System Teaching with Historic Places Telling the Stories Parks as Classrooms Useful History Web Sites National Park Service Bibliographic Resources American Memory - The Library of Congress History Matters National History Day The Valley of the Shadow Bibliographic Essay on the African American West A Bibliography of the Grand Canyon and the Lower Colorado River History and Public Places: A Selected Bibliographic Essay National Park Bibliography Scholarship on Southern Farms and Plantations Materials Research Bibliography Archaeological Bibliographies Southeastern North America Archaeology- related Bibliographies Fire Bibliography http://www.cr.nps.gov/history//history-map.htm 6/11/2002 National oric Landmarks Program (NHL) Homepage Pa of 2 National Historic Landmarks Quick Links [Home Page What is an NHL? Search for an NHL National Historic Landmarks are nationally significant historic places designated by the Secretary of the Interior because they possess Questions/Answers exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the heritage of ISlide Show & Book the United States. Today, fewer than 2,500 historic places bear this national distinction. Working with citizens throughout the nation, the Virtual Travel National Historic Landmarks Program draws upon the expertise of National Park Service staff who work to nominate new landmarks and Stewards provide assistance to existing landmarks. A friends group of owners and Nominations managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, also works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks. ITheme Studies [Assistance -NEW~ New Advisory Board Members Appointed April 18, Students/Teachers 2002 INPS Contacts Inksto the Past National Park Service Privacy & Disclaimer Comments or Questions Last Modified: Tue, Jun 4 2002 04:00:40 pm EDT Site best viewed with v4.0 & above browsers SEB/TCP/PKC ParkNet National Park Service http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/ 6/11/2002